At the first step of this diagnosis I have to outline what is involved in organised observation. The two main strategies that analysts usually can use to track record their observations of occurrences are the set up and unstructured observation. The former involves the recording of occasions of predefined types happening at particular factors with time, or within particular intervals. Organised observation typically produces quantitative data (information about the occurrence of differing types of happenings or of the percentage of time spent on different kinds of activity). This form of observation typically entails different threats to validity. On the list of dangers with structured observation would be that the predefined categories used will come out not to be clearly identified, so that there surely is uncertainty in particular situations about which category is suitable. There may also be relevant events that do not seem to match into any of the categories. This, however, is only gained at the expense of the information being gathered on different situations or at different times often not being comparable (Research Methods in Education, Handbook, p. 44).
Furthermore, structured observation is easy to spell it out but difficult to appreciate without actually participating in the process. Very simply, it consists of placing an observer in a cultural setting to observe all activities defined as appealing to the research. In essence, the method is derived from participant observation in public anthropology and the variation which is sometimes made between 'participant' and 'non-participant' observation does not fully hold used: some degree of contribution is inevitable. As William Howard Russell, the Victorian battle correspondent for the days said "I stand and appearance around, and say thus does it may actually me and so I seem to be to see" so does the structured observation. The 'framework' of organized observation is enforced by the aims of the study in the same way as such seeks impose structure upon any approach to data-collection. As is the situation when open questions are being used in interviews or self-completed questionnaires the researcher using set up observation identifies that not absolutely all of the structure can be motivated in advance and that some structure must be enforced on the data once they have been collected (Roberts, 1975, p. 309).
Researchers undertaking set up observational research usually turn to use low-inference categories - quite simply, categories that can be applied to occasions with at the least contestable judgement for the observer - in the anticipation of incurring only small components of error and doubt. For example, low-inference categories for observing a meeting might include specific things like 'Asks a question', 'Expresses agreement' and 'Makes a proposal' "(E891 Educational Enquiry, Review Guide, p. 145). Furthermore, it is nearly sure that some data obtained from set up observation contain errors, particularly if observation is carried out under extensive pressure of your energy, leading to draw being placed in the wrong boxes. However set up observation as a quantitative research has also been guided by at least a few of the assumptions of positivism - from laboratory experiments, through organized observational studies of class room coaching, to large-scale communal research of the attitudes of instructors, students, parents, education professionals while others. Indeed, during the period of the twentieth hundred years, significant amounts of educational research was influenced with a positivist approach concerned, for example, with figuring out the relative performance of different teaching strategies and techniques (Dunkin, 1974, p. 6).
Part 2
Coming to the next part of the assignment, I am going to try to expose in line with the best of my knowledge, the methodological philosophy of positivism. In matter to the tenets of rational empiricism, scientific improvement in any self-control begins with the untainted observation of fact. This simple truth is expected to provide the researcher with an image of the real world that cognitively produces an a priori style of the procedure to be investigated. The term 'positivism' is nowadays found in such a wide range of ways that it is becoming almost meaningless, except that it's usually applied disparagly to dismiss views or types of research of which the loudspeaker disapproves. The initial meaning of the term contained some important elements. Greatly, positivism can be characterised historically as a means of considering knowledge and enquiry that takes natural knowledge, as it developed after the seventeenth hundred years, as the model, and which looks for to use the scientific solution to new fields. Despite the fact that the word positivism was not invented before nineteenth century, this idea was a central strand of eighteenth-century Enlightenment thinking, although it was by no means the only one and was certainly not accepted by all Enlightenment thinkers (E891 Educational Enquiry, Research Guide, p. 78).
One of the key components of positivism is the theory that it is the duty of research to recognize standard repeatable patterns between cause and impact, discovering particular pedagogical strategies that reliably bring in regards to a desirable educational result. However, there are questions about whether such patterns exist, what persona they have if they do, and how exactly we can know them. Another feature of positivism is the idea that research must follow an explicit procedure, so the idiosyncratic effects of who is doing the research can be eradicated and the replicability of the conclusions checked. Looking to build on this, the idea of evidence-based policy-making and practice is often advertised on the grounds that it's 'clear', since it is guided by explicitly specified knowledge whose validity is open to inspection even though this notion is subject to dispute.
In contrast, the positivist school of thought, is suffering from several limitations, in particular when applied to sociable sciences. First, this process, generalizes a universal statement of fact from observations of a certain variety of positive occasions. The rigorous inductionist approach is often incorrect because speculation and creation of the a priori hypothesis are crucial for a organized process of theory building. Furthermore, the empiricist strategy is dependant on the notion of real observation, which is impossible in research, especially in sociable sciences, since observations are always at the mercy of measurement mistakes. Finally, this process assumes that knowledge is derived from an objective interpretation of assumptions, without any of the subjective biases or a priori knowledge of the scientist getting into play.
In addition to these, positivists have tended to think that the success of natural research today has stemmed from experts' refusal to exceed what can be supported by empirical proof. It is straightforward to forget how radical an orientation this was in earlier generations, as well as perhaps still is in some quarters. It troubles religious statements to understanding of the globe, various kinds of speculative beliefs that do not pay close attention to what is warranted by empirical information, and even any appeal from what is 'clear' to common sense. (E891 Educational Enquiry, Research Guide, p. 79).
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Part 3
The third element of my article is the advantages and weaknesses of set up observation in concern of positivism. Although positivism has been a repeated theme in the history of european thought from the Ancient Greeks to the present day, it is historically associated with the nineteenth-century French philosopher, Auguste Comte, who was simply the first thinker to use the word for a philosophical position. In his study of the annals of the school of thought and technique of technology, Oldroyd (1986) says: "It had been Comte who consciously 'developed' the new knowledge of contemporary society and offered it the name to which we could accustomed. He thought that it might be possible to determine it on a 'positive' basis, similar to the other sciences, which dished up as necessary preliminaries to it. For cultural phenomena were to be viewed in the light of physiological (or biological) laws and regulations and ideas and investigated empirically, exactly like physical phenomena. Moreover, biological phenomena were to be looked at in the light of substance laws and ideas; and so forth down the line" (Silverman et al, (2000), p. 18). Furthermore, Comte's position was to lead to an over-all doctrine of positivism which held that all genuine knowledge is dependant on sense experience and can only be advanced by means of observation and test. Firstly, Positivism here indicates a particular stance regarding the social scientist as an observer of interpersonal simple fact and second the end-product of investigations by cultural researchers can be designed in conditions parallel to people of natural knowledge. This means that their analyses must be indicated in laws or law-like generalizations of the same kind that have been established in relation to natural.
As naturally assumed, positivists often experienced high expectations that science, and especially a knowledge of human communal life, would pave just how for substantial social and political progress, by undermining beliefs and practices which were based only on superstition or traditions, and upgrading them whenever we can with ones founded on clinical evidence. Historically, there is absolutely no automatic interconnection between positivism and the use of quantitative methods of enquiry even though positivism is mainly considered as a quantitative method. However, to a large amount, positivists have, followed experimental physics as their model. Because of this to this, it has been a strong trend for them to insist that it is necessary to use the experimental method, and the types of statistical evaluation modelled on it, to engage in the careful dimension of phenomena, and also to look for causal or statistical romantic relationships among parameters. These commitments highly imply the use of quantitative data (E891 Educational Enquiry, Review Guide, p. 89). Another characteristic of positivist viewpoint is the view that, to develop knowledge, it is vital to follow special or clear strategies or methods. The reasoning behind is that it helps to eliminate the biases that can occur through the effect of the personal and interpersonal characteristics of the researcher. In addition, can achieve what's sometimes known as procedural objectivity. It also allows others to replicate the study, which in a few regard is necessary in order to check if the knowledge produced is sensible, or whether it's been distorted by error or bias by the researcher.
Furthermore, positivism is the idea that research should follow a couple of explicit procedures, so the idiosyncratic effects of who's doing the study can be taken out and the replicability of the results checked. Building on this, the idea of structured observation policy-making and practice is often promoted on the lands that it's 'translucent', since it is guided by explicitly given knowledge whose validity is available to inspection. The link between positivism and the idea of structured observation will not indicate that the theory that educational research can and really should be made to make a significant contribution to educational policy-making and/or practice. Indeed, one sign that they can have this determination is the fact positivism has influenced various varieties of action research. This often requires enquiry to be integrated into educational practice, somewhat than being detached from it in the manner that much standard research is (E891 Educational Enquiry, Study Guide, p. 219). As we realize, organized observations can be produced of many aspects of change in learning and educating, e. g. of learning and instructing activities (lectures, seminars, lab classes), documents and other teaching material shown to students, learning resources, learning surroundings, interactions between individuals. However, as in every methods so in that one strengths and weakness can be recognized. Structured observation provides good insights into how the various participants are behaving and interacting. In addition, may enable you to definitely see things that are taken for granted by individuals in the training and teaching framework. Their perceived insufficient importance by members may imply that they would not be picked up by other methods that explore participant perceptions.
In addition to the above, the task of the educational investigator is frequently to make clear the means by which an orderly communal world is made and managed in terms of its shared meanings and how do participant observation techniques assist the researcher in this task. As Bailey talk about some natural advantages in the participant observation approach:
Observation studies are superior to experiments and studies when data are being gathered on non-verbal behavior.
In observation studies, researchers have the ability to discern ongoing behaviour as it occurs and have the ability to make appropriate notes about its salient features.
Because research study observations take place over an extended time frame, researchers can develop more intimate and informal associations with those they can be watching, generally in more natural environments than those in which experiments and research are conducted.
Case study observations are less reactive than other styles of data-gathering methods. For example, in laboratory-based tests and in research that depend after verbal responses to structured questions, bias can be unveiled in the very data that analysts are attempting to study.
(Silverman et al, (2000), p. 18).
In comparison to the above mentioned, firstly, set up observation neglects the significance of contexts-temporal and spatial-thereby overlooking the actual fact those behaviours may be context specific. Within their concern for the overt and the observable, research workers may neglect unintended outcomes which may have significance; they may be struggling to show how significant are the behaviours of the members being observed in their own terms. Furthermore, organised observations as a quantitative method in concern with positivism can be time consuming. Obtaining a representative picture of the implementation over the period of a pilot or embedding period of the change in learning and coaching will involve joining several learning and coaching activity or event. Continuing, its activities may affect the behaviour of those involved in it and therefore what you see. Participants may take into account what you are in fact evaluating. Academic staff may get worried the quality of their teaching has been examined and students may get worried their academics performance is being assessed. The convinced that underlies participants' observed activities cannot be observed. And last, set up observations are therefore used with other methods that seek insight into this thinking. Being able to make sense of the framework of analysis in a limited timeframe with limited resources may necessitate some understanding of the academic self-control and its culture.
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Part 4
At this part of my assignment, I will expose the methodological viewpoint of interpretivism. Interpretivism was presented from German philosopher Maximum Weber. Regarding to Potential Weber from whom the interpretivist traditions comes from, the enterprise of social research could not be cured as similar compared to that of the natural research. He stressed on 'interpersonal action' which means the study of 'interpretation' which the specific attaches to his/her actions. Interpretivism's starting point is its insistence on differentiating between your dynamics of the phenomena looked into by the natural sciences and the type of those studied by historians, sociable experts and educational researchers. Mainly, it argues that people in contrast atoms, chemicals or most non-human types of life interpret their environment and themselves in ways that are designed by the particular cultures where they live. These distinctive cultural orientations form what they do, so when and how they are doing it (E891 Educational Enquiry, Study Guide, p. 81).
Interpretivist will not reject the thought of methodical or objective knowledge, however they question the idea that the methods employed by natural science used also in the analysis of world or interpersonal sciences. He pressured on 'sociable action' this means the study of 'meaning' that your specific attaches to his or her actions. Furthermore Interpretivist criticize Positivists for neglecting the fact that they are learning people who need to be explored in the ways they think and act in several kinds of situations. Public institutions cannot be treated as split entities or divorced from the subjective understanding or meaning that people have of these and society cannot be examined on the principle of causality as positivists stress may make significant amounts of sense in the natural world but according to the interpretivist, cannot be rigidly applied in the interpersonal world. People do not merely react to exterior stimuli like biologically designed living microorganisms. They actively interpret and control the problem and control their tendencies, acting on the foundation with their interpretations of what is going on, what's the best plan of action. Many different reactions are possible. You will find three different interpretations of a single event, i. e. ; there is no constant cause and impact relationship. Regardless of the response, an observer cannot make sense of your response without interpreting this is you related to your teacher's behavior, for this is this meaning that clarifies your response, not the observable event alone.
Interpretivists argue that all research methods entail complex forms of communication: therefore, coming to understand other people necessarily depends both on analysts' background cultural knowledge and skills, and on their determination to suspend preceding assumptions and allow understanding of other's orientations to emerge over the course of enquiry. Thus quite different ways of life and associated beliefs about the entire world can be located at different items in history and also coexist (peacefully or incompatible) at any one time. Furthermore, this is not just a subject of dissimilarities between societies; there is also significant cultural variation within the large, complex societies in which the majority of us now live. Interpretivists dispute that people cannot realize why people do what they do, why particular companies can be found and operate in quality ways, without grasping how people interpret and make sense of their world - quite simply, the distinctive mother nature of their values, attitudes etc.
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Part 5
The third element of my article is the strengths and weaknesses of structured observation in concern of interpretivism. As we realize structured observation consists of a researcher viewing and hearing actions and situations within a specific context over a period, and then making a record of what she or he has observed. A distinction is sometimes drawn between participant and non-participant structured observation, indicating that the role of the observer may vary much. He or she may play a participant role in the setting up or the situations being seen, or may play no such role apart from observer. The primary matter behind this distinction is reactivity - quite simply, the level to which, and the ways that, the behavior of the individuals studied is shaped both by the actual fact they are being examined in a given way and by this characteristics and participant role of the researcher (E891 Educational Enquiry, Study Guide, p. 121). Generally speaking, qualitative research workers use relatively set up observation as a supplementation to other resources of data. Furthermore, researchers undertaking set up observational research generally seek to use low-inference categories - in other words, categories that can be applied to instances with at the least contestable judgement on the part of the observer - in the expectation of incurring only small elements of error and uncertainty. For example, low-inference categories for observing a gathering might include such things as 'Asks a question', 'Expresses agreement' and 'Makes a proposal'. As a result, this is one of why interpretivism has urged a switch towards qualitative method.
Qualitative methods are usually taken to imply unstructured or organized observation, ethnography, concentrate groups, and etc. that involve experts in positively 'tuning in' to what the researched say. The popularity of the word 'paradigm' is traceable to Kuhn's work on The Framework of Scientific Revolutions; 7 it can be thought as a 'total matrix of beliefs' about theories, research questions and research data (Oakley, 1999, p. 155). These observations and experience are one way of representing the turmoil between different ways of achieving understanding of the earth that amongst sociable researchers are known as 'qualitative' and 'quantitative' methods. A commonly accepted alliance has developed between research method and research subject matter, relating to which 'qualitative' methods can be used to privilege the encounters of oppressed cultural teams. What I dispute is that division of methodological labour is, first of all, socially and historically created, and, secondly, problematic in conditions of the probable of 'qualitative' methods to produce an emancipator sociable science with reliable knowledge cases. However, this qualitative method as the rest of the research methods has talents and weaknesses items. Taking advantages strengths at the beginning, I could definitely mention that always the data is based on the participants' own types of meaning and the study is only great for studying a restricted number of cases in depth. Not only that, another major good thing about the method is that the researcher can explain sophisticated phenomena something that you can rarely find in virtually any other method.
Structured observation is one of the most straightforward ways to gather information always in concern of interpretivism and get a picture of what's happening inside our school or class. It is often a good way to start to explore a situation you wish to know more about. It can also be beneficial to add information to other sources of data you may well be collecting for your action enquiry. However, it's important to keep yourself updated that as an observer you can often affect the problem you are trying to observe. Generally the role of the observer can be 'natural' (unnoticed, area of the wallpaper) or participatory (e. g. take part in the proceedings in the problem discovered). The latter use qualitative, organized solutions of observation; the ex - might use a mixture of both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Whilst the 'natural' observer uses a musical instrument (e. g. proforma) for the observation, the participant-observer is the tool. One very common example may be the finding of the class teacher to find out how children solve a multiplication problem. As the '100 % pure' observer they will use an observation checklist, ticking containers as she or he observes the pupil on a pre-determined problem-solving activity. Then, as the 'instrument' himself or herself, they may ask the pupil what she or he do, why he achieved it, and could even placed him another, but similar, activity, to see if he uses the same strategy. By doing so, the professor will influence the results, but in the framework of coaching and learning this can be a valid approach to structured observation.
Taking the above simple example someone can definitely determine not only the talents and but also the weaknesses of the method used. From the point of strength, the researcher Can execute cross-case comparisons and analysis and provides understanding and information of people's personal activities of the phenomena. Furthermore, the researcher can study dynamic techniques, and determine how individuals interpret constructs. In addition, qualitative researchers are specially attentive to changes that occur during the do of a report and may switch the focus of their studies. In contrast, biases can be developed. Data research is often time consuming and the email address details are more easily influenced by the researcher's personal biases and idiosyncrasies. Meaning that all perceptual functions involving the consuming of information by observation and its own subsequent internal control are subject to bias. Our own interests, activities, and expectations will probably influence whatever we pay attention to and do make a conscious effort to spread your attention generally and evenly. Finally, It really is more difficult to test hypotheses and theories with large participant pools but knowledge produced may not generalize to other folks or other settings (i. e. , findings might be unique to the relatively few people contained in the research study.
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4 A short summary of the second methodological philosophy you have picked (around 500 words). 5 An evaluation of the talents and weaknesses of organized observation from this second point of view (around 1000 words). 6 A conclusion exploring the implications of the comparative examination you have carried out (around 1000 words).
