Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
In the books review section, the starting part will be about the principles of communication and effective communication in an organisation along with a brief review about the guidelines of effective communication. Next are the models of communication which will be elaborated by using various authors and from educational journals. Following that, the primary theories of the types of communication, communication programs and marketing communications systems will be reviewed and weighed against reference to the neighborhood authority. Furthermore, the goal of communication within an company will be disseminated. In addition, the great things about effective communication will be reviewed along with the several costs came across in connecting through different levels.
The literature review will help to formulate the research questions as well concerning establish a relevant methodology to handle the study.
2. 1 Meaning of Communication
Work needs communication. Communication atlanta divorce attorneys organisation is just how people get their work done and get recognized for their efforts. As such, people at BRDC will speak to plan services, coordinate creation and delivery, retain, train, motivate employees and so forth.
According to Tyson and Jackson (1997),
'The problem is in this is of the term "communication". It covers a good deal and includes not only the actual words used, but, also, the modulation of voice, pitch situation where it requires place therefore on'.
Despites these complications, ideas that convey a fairly good picture of what communication is all about are proposed by different creators.
Communication is an activity in which people who occupy differing conditions exchange text messages in a particular context via one or more channels and frequently respond to each other's announcements through verbal and nonverbal responses. (Alder, R. B. , Elmhorst, J. M. , 1996)
Similarly, Baskin and Aronoff (1980) have identified "communication as the exchange of text messages between visitors to achieve shared meanings".
According to Carell et al, (1995),
"Communication is the glue that binds various elements, coordinates activities, allows people to work together and produces results".
Cole (1993), on the other palm, defines communication as
"the procedure of fabricating, transmitting and interpreting ideas, facts, viewpoints and feelings. It is an activity that is essentially a showing one - an interchange between two or more persons".
As described by the creators, by using different method of communication, information and interpretation can be moved between senders and receivers. Communication in organisation is therefore a report of the exchange of words and meanings as folks within and outside these organizations work towards reaching organisational targets.
2. 2 Effective Communication
According to Roberts, J. (2009), effective communication is the passing of the right concept or information to the right person, correctly, at the right time, and with the right impact, impact and results.
Effective communication is a two-way process - mailing the right concept, which is also being correctly received and understood by the other person/s. Effective communication is the key factor to successful management. The guidelines of effective communication can be evaluated using two techniques namely, the ABC strategy and the Seven Cs.
2. 2. 1 The ABC approach
Accuracy
This implies that the information conveyed must be as appropriate as it can be since people can interpret it in different ways. It is important to create communication in a few form to permit for variations of information. However, being correct is not necessarily easy and recipient must be aware of its limits.
Brevity
This means being concise and therefore the note can be discovered and understood. This helps the receiver as arguments don't get lost in a clutter of needless words. However, one must stick to the point as wander off in other areas may cause misunderstanding.
Clarity
This is achieved by using the right words. The audience must be considered carefully. Locker, O. K and Kaczmarek, S. K (2007), thinks that audiences pay attention to messages only if they seem to be important, relevant and interesting. However, this consists of what vocabulary, explanations and instances will make sense to the audience.
2. 2. 2 The Seven Cs
Clear
Meaningful language is required to avoid ambiguity and the communications must be communicated in a way which is often easily comprehended by the audience. Therefore, content need to be chosen carefully.
Concise
Brevity, compatible with the complexity of the info to be conveyed and the necessary style and build, is of the substance. Messages should get rid all elaboration and superfluous detail.
Correct
The information should be correct. However, staff at BRDC should look for mistakes, especially in information, titles and addresses.
Courteous
In any form of communication, it will pay to consider it as an individual address to the recipients. Employees should be polite and use friendly language alternatively than formal "officialese" which really is a hurdle to communication.
Complete
The communication should fully convey the meaning, leaving as far as possible nothing at all out. Audience will be aware that they have got everything they need.
Consistent
The flow of vocabulary is considerably helped by reliability useful, such as standardising the individual and tense, and sticking to a specific style and tone throughout.
Convincing
Employees should show self-confidence and dedication in what they talk, even though there could be times when they don't actually feel them in what they certainly at the job.
The Seven Cs considers a wider selection of points and is more developed than the ABC approach.
2. 3 Communication Theory Platform 1
Mechanistic - communication is merely the transmitting of information from the first party to the next party. The first party being the sender and the next party being the device.
Psychological - communication is in fact the thoughts, thoughts of the sender which he tries to share with the recepients. It also includes the reactions, emotions of the device after he decodes the information.
Social - communication is known as therefore of interaction between your sender and the device. Communication is directly dependent on the content of the speech.
Systemic - Communication is truly a new and an alternative message which is created when various individuals interpret it in their own way and then reinterpret it and pull their own final result.
Critical - Communication is simply a way by using which an individual expresses his power and specialist among other individuals.
To summarize the communication theory suggests that to survive, every living entity, needs to talk to others and also among themselves.
1 http://www. managementstudyguide. com/communication-theory. htm
2. 4 Communication Models
There are five most recognized and accepted types of communication.
2. 4. 1 Aristole's Model of communication
Aristotle was the first to take an initiative and design the communication model.
Figure 1
Source: Scribd. com - models-of-communication
According to the model, the speaker plays a key role in communication. The sender first prepares content where he put his thoughts in words with a view to affect the recipients, who then respond in the sender's desired way. The model demonstrates that the speaker communicates so that the listeners get affected and respond appropriately.
2. 4. 2 Shannon-Weaver Mathematical Model
Shannon designed typically the most popular of all early on communication models. He wanted to guide the attempts of engineers in finding a cost-effective way of transmitting electric alerts between locations.
http://www. shkaminski. com/Classes/images/Shannon-Weaver%20Model. gif
Figure 2
Source: The Mathematical Theory of Communication (Shannon, C. and Weaver, W. , 1949)
Compared to the Aristotle's model, the Shannon-Weaver model is a common communication model used. It is seen as a resemblance of the real human communication process. However, it isn't analogous to individuals communication. Mortensen, C. D (1972), is convinced that the model is merely formal, that is, does not account for content. Moreover, he is of the judgment that the Shannon-Weaver marketing communications system is static and also linear. "It conceives of any linear and literal transmitting of information between locations. "
2. 4. 3 Berlo's Style of communication
While the Aristotle style of communication sets the loudspeaker in the central position, the Berlo's style of communication takes under consideration the emotional facet of the message. It is an adaptation of the Shannon-Weaver model. Berlo's style of communication operates on the SMCR model.
In the SMCR model
S - Source
M - Message
C - Channel
R - Receiver
Berlo's model of communication
Figure 3
Source: THE PROCEDURE of Communication (Berlo, D. K, 1960)
This model demonstrates source is flexible as it includes oral, written, electronic and any kinds of communication. Message was made the central aspect. Furthermore, it stress that receivers will be the targets. The "encoding" and "decoding" idea translate thoughts into words and decrypt words of others into conditions you can understand. However, it means that human being communication and machine communication are similar and there is manipulation of the note. People misunderstand the other person despite having the "right" symbols.
With reference to the berlo's style of communication, the speaker and the listener must be on a typical ground for even conversion but this may also be not useful in the reality.
2. 4. 4 Schramm's Interactive Model
Wilbur Schramm (1954) was the first ever to modify the numerical style of Shannon and Weaver. He emphasises that communication is imperfect until the sender gets a responses from the receiver. Schramm believed that communication is truly a two way process between your first get together and the second party.
mhtml:file://F:\VANDANAH\communications\Communication%20Models. mht!http://www. shkaminski. com/Classes/images/Schramm's%20Model%202. gif
Figure 4
Source: THE PROCEDURE and Effects of Communication (Schramm, W. , 1954)
Schramm provided additional idea of your "field of experience". It offers feedback, framework, culture and so on. However, this model makes up about only mutal communication between two parties. This model does not take into account multiple levels of communication between several options.
According to Schramm style of communication whenever a sender moves on the information to the device, the latter must interpret it in the required form and present him the reviews or respond appropriately. The communication is not complete and therefore inadequate if the sender does not get the responses.
2. 4. 5 Dance's Helical Spiral
Another important model of communication is the Helical Model of communication that was proposed by Frank Party in 1967 to toss even more light on communication process. This model is aware of communication in a bird's eyesight perspective and considers almost all the activities of a person.
mhtml:file://F:\VANDANAH\communications\Communication%20Models. mht!http://www. shkaminski. com/Classes/images/Helical%20Model. gif
Figure 5
Source: www. shkaminski. com- communication model
Mortensen: "As a heuristic device, the helix is interesting not so much for what it says for what it allows to be said. Chapanis (1961), on the other side, called "sophisticated play:" The helix indicators that communication is constant unrepeatable, additive, and accumulative. In a nutshell, the helix emphasises the included aspects of human communication as an evolving process. However, helical style of communication may not be a model at all as there are too few factors. The model leaves unanswered questions.
2. 4. 6 Westley and MacLean's Conceptual Model
Unlike Frank Dance, Westley and MacLean assumed that communication does not start from day one but begins when the presenter receives impulses from his exterior surroundings.
This model pertains to a strong relation between the impulses from the environment and the communication process. The procedure of communication begins with receiving information rather than sending messages. Occurrences may sometimes unintentionally arise and indicators is received unintentionally.
(Receives subject matter)
Environment----------------------------------------------Sender----then directs message
(Communication starts)
Figure 6
Source: www. managementstudyguide. com/westley-maclean-model-of-communication
The model makes up about feedback, a sensory field, non-binary connections and different settings. Westley and MacLean's model details more factors in the communication interaction. However, it is still two-dimensional.
It can therefore be figured the six types of communication are all initiatives by great scholars to simplify and help in better understanding of the communication process.
2. 5 Types of Communications
"No one would talk much in contemporary society if they knew how often they misinterpreted others". - Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe.
Organisations have recourse to two types of communication namely,
Verbal
Non-verbal communication.
2. 5. 1 Verbal Communication
Anderson, H. et al (2004) suggests "verbal communication implies that information has been sent through speech. " In verbal communication words are involved. According to Boolaky, M. and Gokhool, D. , (2006) verbal communication is further divided into:
Oral Communication
Written Communication
Oral Communication
In the communication process, oral communication identifies spoken words. It could either be a conversation over the telephone or face-to-face communication or on the voice chat on the web. With the BRDC, dental communication is vital as it is better to get feedback by observing facial expressions and requesting questions and provides more possibility to get attention and keeping interest. However, Desmonds W. Evans (1990) argued that Dental communication is volatile, that is, major decisions can't be recorded and therefore cannot be preserved for future reference.
Written Communication
In in contrast, written communication can be either via email messages, letters, faxes, reports, memos and so forth. Advantages are that highly technological subject areas can be shown using words and diagrams and a permanent record that may be referred to every once in awhile or passed on to others. However, Kushal, S. J and Ahuja, S. , (2010) argues that written communication is unfit for uneducated person, this can be a wastage of the time, delays feedback and no idea about real motives and feelings. They further discuss that to ensure efficiency of written communication, it should be brief and simple, complete, avoid jargons etc.
2. 5. 2 Non Verbal Communication
"Activities speak louder than words". - Kaye, M. (1994)
Fromkin and Rodman (1983) claim that up to 90 per cent of the communication process takes place non-verbally. Courtland, L. B, et al (2010) identified non-verbal communication as "the social process of sending and receiving information, both intentionally and unintentionally, without using written or verbal communication. He further stress that non-verbal communication is essential as it can help to enhance a verbal note.
In compare to verbal communication, non- verbal communication includes overall body gestures of the individual who's speaking, which will are the body pose, the hand gestures, and overall body activities. It may also be by means of pictorial representations, signboards, or even images, sketches and paintings.
Kushal, S. J and Ahuja, S. , (2010) states that non-verbal communication are reliable, successful, helps establish credibility and authority potential, accurate knowledge of attitudes. However, they argues that there surely is lack of secrecy, ideal for small pieces of information, gestures can be misinterpreted, it is necessary for both gatherings to face the other person, insufficient written proof, more difficult to study and does not discuss past events and ideas.
Verbal and Non- verbal communication are important in an group. BRDC must ensure the effectiveness of the types of communication as there are both advantages and drawbacks.
2. 6 Communication Channels
Communication is now done through variety of programs ranging from nonverbal signs to very sophisticated communication advertising and technology. The communication that takes place in the organisation can be categorised as formal and casual.
Formal communication can take place in two ways:
Vertical
Horizontal
2. 6. 1 Vertical Communication
It steps between individuals at different levels within an company (Taylor, 2005). Vertical communication in classical management hierarchy can be:
Upward
Downward
Upward Communication
It refers to information movement from the low levels of a hierarchy to top of the levels. Employees use this channel to connect suggestions, grievances and improvement of work (Boolaky and Gokhool, 2006). Furthermore, Courtland, L. B, et al (2010) directed that executives can solve problems and make clever decisions. It really is good to taking feedback on regulations and calls for corrective action. However, it does not transfer realistic message.
Downward Communication
Information flows from an increased level to a lesser level in a hierarchy. Management uses this route to inform employees about regulations, programs, job instructions and opinions (Boolaky & Gokhool, 2006). The advantages of downward communication are that it is appropriate for providing instructions and ensures that many people are working towards goals and aims. On the far side of the gold coin, information can be distorted as it goes down and there is insufficient openness between managers and employees
2. 6. 2 Horizontal Communication
Horizontal communication is both process related and informal and occurs between people on similar footing in the hierarchy (Postmes, 2003). Further, Taylor, S. (2005) stress the need of employees to corporate and share. It can take various forms like meetings, face to face exchange, group conversations and telephone discussions. Its targets are coordination, co-operation and integration.
Informal communication as defined by Courtland, L. B, et al (2010) is described "as the grapevine that encompasses all communication that occurs beyond your formal network. " Similarly, in what of Thill and Bovee, "The informal communication network provides information over the organisation's unofficial lines of activity and power. "
Kushal, S. J and Ahuja, S. , (2010) proposes some benefits of formal communication such as it is powerful, speedy communication as no formal line of communication are present, multi-dimension as matter of communication varies and it is supplementary to formal programs. The authors however debated that informal communication results in distortion of communication as it bears half-truths and rumours. There is also the life of erratic communication.
It can be deduced that the programs of communication in an organization will depends upon the framework of the organization.
2. 7 Communication Systems
"Communication systems can be divided into those using an intranet, those using the written phrase such as notifications, circulars, and notice-boards, memo, fax, and the ones using dental methods such as meetings, briefing teams and, telephone amongst others". (Armstrong, 2006)
Communications through an intranet system
Organisations are increasingly relying on an interior e-mail system (the intranet) to converse information, especially in workplaces where all or most of the employees have direct or indirect usage of a pc. The good thing about intranet communications is that they can be transmitted quickly to a wide audience and so saves a lot of time.
Fax messages
Similarly to the intranet system, a fax machine is relatively inexpensive. Fax transmits and obtains any kind of meaning- handwritten, published, diagrams, photographs. It takes only mere seconds to transmit a fax concept, with respect to the length of the document. Because of its versatility and acceleration, it is often used between divisions or branches of the same company rather than mobile phone or memos.
Circular letters
A Circular letter is the one that is delivered to numerous people at the same time. The notice may prepare yourself once and then duplicated. It really is sent for the following reasons:
Inform personnel of new coverage matters
Announce beginning of a new office/branch
Notice-boards
Notice-boards are used to bring special what to the attention of most staff. It really is an apparent but frequently misused medium for communications. The biggest danger is allowing boards to be cluttered up with uninteresting or out-of-date materials. Its advantage is a written record of the note is maintained.
Memos
It is a written communication from one person to another or a group of folks within the same business. Its goal is to remind someone of action required, request decisions actions and offer information of any kind.
Telephone
Telephones are a point-to-point communication system whose most basic function is to allow two people separated by large distances to talk to one another. In virtually any organisation the person on the telephone represents the business and gives an impression of the company to the exterior world.
Meetings
Meetings enable face to face contact of a number of people at the same time. They provide a good opportunity for writing information, making suggestions and proposals, taking decision and obtaining instant feedback.
2. 8 Purposes of Communication
The main purposes of communication in company are as follows:
Organisational Communication
Express thoughts and emotions
Achieve coordinated action
Share information
Organisation goals
Task directive
Results of efforts
Decision making
Source: designed from Moorhead and Griffin (1992)
2. 9 Benefits of Effective Communication
Taylor (2005) argues that if organisations desire to be successful in today's world, good communication at all levels is essential. The benefits that may be achieved are:
Stronger decision-making and problem solving
Upturn in productivity
Convincing and engaging corporate materials
Clearer, more streamlined workflow
Enhanced professional image
Sound business relationships
Successful response ensured
In addition, Courtland, L. B, et al (2010) discovered that effective communication strengthens the bond between a corporation and those groups affected for some reason by the business's actions.
2. 10 Obstacles to effective communication
Maini & Morrel-Samuels (2006, p. 38) build that a lot of large organizations are suffering from serious communication problem, the difficulties are especially dominant in large organisations where precise collaboration is critical.
Robbins (1998) identifies the following obstacles to effective communication: Filtering, selective belief, defensiveness and terms.
Filtering
Filtering identifies sender manipulating information so the receiver will see it more favourably. Filtering also takes place between the supervisor and the administrator, and in fact, from one level to another.
Selective perception
Selective perception occurs when the receivers in the communication process selectively see and notice predicated on their needs, motivation, experience, backdrop, and other personal characteristics. Receivers of information also affiliate their passions and targets into communication as they decode them.
Defensiveness
Defensiveness occurs when people make an effort to defend their position because of certain risks. They tend to engage in such behaviours as verbally attacking others, making sarcastic remarks, being extremely judgmental, and questioning others' motives. Therefore, when individuals interpret another's meaning as threatening they often times respond with techniques that blur effective communication.
Language
Words and term means different thing to different people. Age group, education and ethnic background are three of the greater obvious parameters that influence the terms a person uses and this is he or she provides to words. In an organisation, employees usually come from different backgrounds and for that reason have different habits of conversation.
In addition to Robbins, Taylor (2005) suggests the following obstacles to communication:
Emotional responses
Communication cannot be successful if one is highly psychological about this issue concerned. Problems may happen from insecurity, fear, anger. If thoughts are on top of the part of the sender or receiver, then it might be better to wait for a while before trying to place the subject matter.
Systems
In any organizations there must be prescribed procedures so you can get messages to the people who need them. Without such systems there can be no effective communication.
Courtland, L. B, et al (2010), on the other side, point out the following:
Competing messages
One must compete with other communications that are trying to reach the audience at exactly the same time. It is vital to come up with communications that the audience will value as any messages that are more compelling can take the audience's attention away.
2. 11 Tendencies in communication
Today's world has developed quickly from an professional age to a information age. Owing to technological advancement, ways of working and structure of teams are affected. In the words of Courtland, L. B, et al (2010), "today's business rely seriously on technology to aid the communication process. " However, they argued that the great things about technology aren't intelligent. Inappropriate used technology can prevent communication.
"Traditionally, communications in business were hierarchical with information being passed up and down the chain, often with secretaries acting as a filtration between managers and staff" (Taylor, 2005). Network has changed the hierarchical model with email, every employee can communicate immediately with everybody else. Information can therefore be sent out more efficiently across the organisation.
It can be deduced that changes in organisational varieties have made communication significantly important to overall functioning of the company. However, technology is not really a replacement but only a tool to help communication to take place effectively.
2. 12 Ethical Communication
According to Werner David 'Management is in essence the act of communication, for management operations are from the receipt of information and its valid interpretation which results in effective decision making. '
A notion of ethical foundation is essential for those employed in communication. A number of theories exist that link company communication with its honest underpinning.
Courtland, L. B, et al (2010) is of the view that to ensure honest communication, three elements are required namely, ethical company leadership, moral individuals and plans and structures to aid employees to make moral choices. Furthermore, they remarked that these three elements need to work in harmony. The writers further argued that unethical communication can change audiences with techniques such as plagiarism, omitting essential information, selective misquoting, misrepresenting quantities, distorting visuals, failing woefully to respect privacy.
Ethical communication is true in every sense. Many organisation create ethics policy by providing a written code of ethics to help employees determine what is acceptable. For instance, at BRDC, employers establish clear ethical recommendations and precise code of do dealing with areas like health insurance and safety, safety of the organisation's possessions and information, issues of interest and so on.
2. 13 Modern-day issue in communication
2. 13. 1 Cross-Cultural communication
Courtland, L. B, et al (2010) described cross-cultural communication as "the process of mailing and receiving messages between people whose ethnical backgrounds could lead them to interpret verbal and non-verbal signals differently. " Munter (1993) come forward with the difficulties in cross-cultural communication like barriers triggered by semanties, connotations, shade differences, variations among perceptions. Adler (1991), on the other hand, as reported by Robbins (1998), provides the following recommendations; suppose distinctions until similarity proven, emphasis information somewhat than interpretation, practice empathy and treat interpretation as a working hypothesis.
In every company, culture affects the mailing and acquiring of information. Therefore, to communicate effectively, BRDC need to understand cultural dissimilarities and handle these to start opportunities throughout the world. Moreover, BDRC will be able to maximize the contributions of personnel in a diverse workforce.
