A research discovered that feminine is more empathize to others than guy in same years, and degree of empathy growing different with age. This study measure level of empathy of 505 male and female older 13 to 16 by using Bryant's Index of Empathy for Children and Children and Davis's Interpersonal Reactivity Index. The result of Index of Empathy for Children and Children shows that girl has increased empathic response than guy. Besides, woman also scored greater than men in 4 aspects of empathy (perspective taking, fantasy, empathic matter, and personal stress) in Interpersonal Reactivity Index (Mestre, Samper, Fras, & Tur, 2009).
According to a study done by Wilson, Prescott, & Becket (2012), to compare level of empathy between pharmacy, nursing, and regulation students and compare between first and third season of students. The result shows that feminine scored higher than male in empathy levels although there's a difference in empathy between courses of review and season of research (Wilson, Prescott, & Becket, 2012). Consistent with this research, another research investigate gender dissimilarities and degree of empathy between three different theoretical orientations groups of postgraduate students (person-centred, cognitive-behavioral and communal sciences). The results revealed that female from all groups scored higher than male in Davis's Interpersonal Reactivity Index (Ivtzana, Redmanb, & Gardnerb, 2012).
Ouzouni and Nakakis (2012) discovered that female significant more empathic than men as feminine students scored higher in degree of empathy than male students in Jefferson Size of Medical Students Empathy, when examine the level of empathy among 279 nursing students in the study. (Ouzouni & Nakakis, 2012). On the other hand, McKenna et al. (2012) found there is absolutely no factor between degree of empathy and gender (P=0. 088) among undergraduates nursing students. The study revealed that nursing students reported good level of empathy as scored good in Jefferson Size of Physician Empathy (JSPE), but degree of empathy of both female and male are almost the same (McKenna et al. , 2012).
A analysis investigates the degrees of empathy towards patients in 783 paramedic students in Australia found that there is factor between degrees of empathy in gender. Girl were found scored higher than guy in Medical Condition Regard Level (MCRS) which indicates that female is more empathic than male with parameters of medical condition of patients (Williams et al. , 2012). In keeping with this study, Chen, Lew, Hershman, and Orlander (2007) conducted a report to examined degree of empathy among 658 medical students in several years of review. The result confirmed that despite different many years of study, female also scored higher than male in Jefferson Scale of Medical doctor Empathy-Student Version (JSPE-S) (Chen, Lew, Hershman, and Orlander, 2007). Hojat et al. (2005) also found that female scored greater than man in Jefferson Level of Physician Empathy (JSPE) while analyzed the partnership between empathy, interest, personality, and parent's perceptions among first calendar year medical students (Hojat et al. , 2005).
The marriage between role of cognitive and affective empathy and gender dissimilarities in bullying among 795 adolescent, which 455 female and 340 man were investigated. The result demonstrated that feminine significantly higher than guy in both cognitive and affective empathy especially affective empathy. (Topcu & Erdur-Baker, 2012). In keeping with the result, another study used Davis's Interpersonal Index to compare cognitive empathy (perspective taking) and affective empathy (empathic matter) among male and female undergraduate's medical students. Girl is found obtained higher than men in both cognitive and affective empathy, and the effect reported higher ratings in affective empathy (Quince, Parker, Lumber, & Benson, 2011). Regularly, Myyry and Helkama (2001) investigated emotional empathy and value priorities among college or university students. The result showed that female scored greater than male in emotional empathy as measured by Mehrabian and Epstein's Questionnaire Way of measuring Emotional Empathy (Myyry & Helkama, 2001).
A study analyzed the gender differences on empathizing-systemizing (E-S) theory and extreme men brain (EMB) theory of autism. The members included group 1, 48 Autism people, and two control group with 137 basic populations and students of university respectively. The result revealed that females from both control communities scored greater than guys in Empathy Quotient, and guy have scored higher in Systemizing Quotient, while autism group does not shows gender dissimilarities in Empathy Quotient (Wakabayashi et al. , 2007). Wakabayashi was later conducted a report to assess Empathy Quotient and Systemizing Quotient among 626 normal Japanese children with a long time from 6 to 15 years of age. The result was constant with previous review, with female scored higher than men in Empathy Quotient and guy obtained higher in Systemizing Quotient (Wakabayashi, 2013).
Rueckert & Naybar (2006) believed that the role of right hemisphere got impact in empathy. In the analysis, activation of right cerebral hemisphere (RH) and empathy of 22 man and 73 female have been examined by doing a face activity which is recognizing the happy face. The effect revealed that girl scored greater than men in empathy questionnaire, and female's empathy is found correlated to activation of RH, but not in male's empathy. Therefore, the role of right hemisphere is with regards to gender differences and empathy (Rueckert & Naybar, 2006). Consistently, another research also discovered that gender difference in empathy is correlated to brain, generally right hemisphere, with neurons in female's right regions of brain is more active than in guy. The result signifies that female shows activation in right regions of brain in frontal lobe when concluding tasks about sentiment attribution, regarding both self-task which is concentrate on own sentiment to emotion expressing faces, and other-task that examined the emotional status of expressing faces. However, there is absolutely no activation in men (Rјther, Markowitsch, Shah, Fink, & Piefke, 2008).
Dadds et al. (2008) found that level of empathy in female developed more than male across year. The analysis revealed that girls in 7 to 10 years later years group have scored higher for Griffith Empathy Measure than guys in the same generation. It is also reported that young girls in generation of 11 to 16 years of age scored greater than boys in the same generation. This study indicates that young girls more empathize to males because their empathy levels developed more than young boys although in same chronological age (Dadds et al. , 2008). Consistently, a study reviewed the effects of age on self-reported empathy in men and women from 18 to 90 years old. The result shows that female obtained higher in degree of empathy than male in Interpersonal Reactivity Index across time although degree of empathy is available the best in middle-aged adults than both young and more aged people (O'Brien, Konrath, Grјhn, & Hagen, 2012). In contrast, Wakabayashi (2013) evaluated romantic relationship between Empathy Quotient and age group by gender among Japanese children who aged from 6 to 15 years of age. The result suggests the interaction of age and gender in Empathy Quotient is not significant (Wakabayashi, 2013).
Cundiff and Komarraju (2008) found that male and feminine in multicultural population have difference perceptions in empathy. For occasions, ethno cultural empathy which is ethnic and ethnic empathy that associated to public dilemmas such as prejudices or racism. The research investigated ethno ethnic empathy among 365 undergraduate students in health care program. The effect illustrated that female have higher level of ethnic and ethnic empathy than guy, which they have significantly more positive attitudes towards others from ethnic and ethnic minority groups in comparison with male. This indicated that girl is more empathic than men (Cundiff, & Komarraju, 2008). In contrast, a study found there is no significant difference in ethnic empathy among male and female (t= -0. 74) of international undergraduates in Malaysia because the discrepancy between cultural empathy in male and feminine is small (Yusoff, 2010).
Another research done by Rasoal, Jungert, Hau, Stiwne, and Andersson (2009), study aimed to investigate differences between basic empathy and ethnocultural empathy among 365 undergraduate students. It discovered that gender difference relates to both basic and ethnocultural empathy as females scored higher than guy in all parts of empathy of both basic and ethnocultural despite excluded empathic perspective taking (Rasoal, Jungert, Hau, Stiwne, & Andersson, 2009).
Wakabayashi et al. (2007) unveiled that gender difference and level of empathy is not affected by cultural dissimilarities, and female tends to have higher empathy levels than men. Within the cross-cultural study, Japan female are found have higher empathy levels than Japanese male as they scored higher in Empathic Quotient, similar with female in Western modern culture who reported higher level of empathy than man. (Wakabayashi et al. , 2007).
Gender and Self-Esteem
According to study done by McMullin & Cairney (2004), the relationship between self-esteem, gender, time, and course among 16, 051 of Canadian residents have been reviewed, by using Rosenberg's self-esteem level. The result discovered that there is a romantic relationship between self-esteem and gender. Male found to have higher degrees of self-esteem than females. This review also unveiled self-esteem in both male and female are related to sociable class and years (McMullin & Cairney, 2004). In contrast, Skultety and Whitbourne (2004) found that there is absolutely no gender differences in self-esteem. The analysis examined the partnership of gender difference in self-esteem and personal information process (personality assimilation, individuality accommodation, and balance) among 222 parents, aged 40 to 84 years of age. When compared to gender and self-esteem, male and female in all age ranges reported similar mean results in Rosenberg Self-Esteem Level (Skultety & Whitbourne, 2004).
A study examined the relationship between self-esteem and gender, years, and programs of analysis among 105 male and101 feminine with of university students, with mean age group 23. 60. The result mentioned when compare to proportions of self-esteem in academics achievement, evaluation of cultural, and self-appearance, the entire self-esteem ratings for male a lot more higher than girl and there is factor in overall self-esteem results in male and female (Tamini & Valibeygi, 2011). Another research conducted by Saadat, Ghasemzadeh, and Soleimani (2012) examined the amount of self-esteem and the partnership with academic accomplishment among 370 school students. The analysis examined 5 types of self-esteem for male and female, including global, academic, body, family, and public self-esteem. The results of the research is contrast to Tamini and Valibeygi (2011), that is girl scored higher than man in four types of self-esteem except family self-esteem (Saadat, Ghasemzadeh, & Soleimani, 2012). Male were found have scored higher than woman in self-esteem for academics success (Tamini & Valibeygi, 2011). On the other hand, Saadat, Ghasemzadeh, and Soleimani (2012) found that female is have scored higher than guy in academic achievement (Saadat, Ghasemzadeh, & Soleimani, 2012).
A research done by Rahmani (2011), with the reason to examine the relationship between self-esteem, success goals and educational performance among 200 principal school students, aged between 7 to 11 years of age. The result suggested that when compared both male and feminine in the connection of self-esteem and achievements goals, male obtained higher than female in Eysenck self-esteem questionnaire (Rahmani, 2011). Consistent with this study, Lent and Figueira-Mcdonough (2002) also discovered that there is significant difference between gender and self-esteem. This review looked into gender, poverty, and self-esteem, and analyzed romance between self-esteem and competency in many domains among feminine and male. The results unveiled that female in overall have lower self-esteem than male as they see themselves as less experienced than performed male (Lent & Figueira-Mcdonough, 2002).
A review conducted by Recreation area & Epstein (2013) directed to investigate the relationship between self-esteem and distress with body image, and influences from relationship with parents among 1, 584 man and 1, 582 girl of Korea adolescent. When put next between body image problems and self-esteem among gender, guy reported more impressive range of self-esteem than female even feels distress with body image. The result also disclosed that female's self-esteem was influence by distress of body image and vice versa, but for men, not vice versa, means that body image distress do not influence by self-esteem (Park & Epstein, 2013). Another research done by Pritchard (2010) investigated the relationship between self-esteem in gender and preoccupation of bodyweight among 335 feminine and 232 men of undergraduates students part. In contradict with Area and Epstein (2013) when examined self-esteem and body image among male and feminine, the result of this study exhibited that there is no factor in self-esteem of female and male, but feminine have higher levels of weight preoccupation than male (Pritchard, 2010).
Another analysis investigates the partnership between self-esteem, partnership, dimensions of attachment (avoidance and panic), and styles of attachment among 398 young people of Thai, aged 18 to 24 yrs. old. These parameters are divided into two groups, which is loving attachment (involve satisfaction towards romantic relationship and relationship span) and non-romantic attachment. The result implies there is factor between self-esteem and gender. When put next between genders, man from two different teams reported higher mean scores in self-esteem than girl. (Wongpakaran, Wongpakaran, & Wedding, 2012). Constantly, Moksnes, Moljord, Espnes, and Byrne (2010) also found there may be gender difference in self-esteem. The study examined level of self-esteem, stress, and status of emotions (anxiousness and major depression) among 1, 508 adolescents. Male reported obtained higher in level of self-esteem in comparison to female and woman reported have scored higher in state of thoughts and stress than guy (Moksnes, Moljord, Espnes, & Byrne, 2010).
Falci (2011) conducted a report and exposed that degree of self-esteem in men is higher than female. The analysis investigated self-esteem and trajectory of mastery in gender across high school year among 769 adolescents in 9th and 12th marks. The result illustrated that self-esteem of girl has been inclined during high school 12 months. Besides, gender space in self-esteem has been dropped between 9th and 12th grades and this signifies that both feminine and man have similar degrees of self-esteem in this era. However, guy still reported have higher levels of self-esteem than feminine in 9th and 12th levels (Falci, 2011). Another review done by Quatman and Watson (2001) to look at the relationship between gender and self-esteem among 545 adolescent from 8th, 10th, and 12th levels. Eight domains of self-esteem, including personal security, academic achievement, level of popularity in peers, attractiveness, parents, personal mastery, athletic competency, and emotional permeability were tested between gender. The result illustrated that male have higher self-esteem than female in six of eight domains of self-esteem, except popularity in peers and academics achievement which shown no significant distinctions among gender. Consistent with result in study by Falci (2011), this review found that overall self-esteem ratings for male are higher than female (Quatman & Watson, 2001).
Sherer and Enbal (2006) found that male have higher degrees of self-esteem than females even in different cultural background. The study aimed to investigate self-esteem levels in both female and male and relationship with cultural record. The study likened self-esteem in both female and male among two different national communities, which is 742 Jewish and 234 Arab youths. Inside the contrast of nationality, no gender differences is found in self-esteem, as the result demonstrated that both feminine and male of Arab youths are reported have scored higher in level self-esteem than Jewish youths. On the other hand, if likened between gender and self-esteem, male from both nationalities reported higher credit score in self-esteem size compared to feminine (Sherer & Enbal, 2006).
A longitudinal analysis investigated romance between life satisfaction and socioeconomic status (SES) on self-esteem of male and female among Chinese college or university students, which 214 man and 134 girl. The result revealed that females reported higher levels of self-esteem than male if associated to raised degrees of life satisfaction and SES position. This means that that self-esteem of woman is affect by life satisfaction and SES status in comparison to male (Ye, Lu, & Li, 2012). Consistently, another done by Diener & Diener (2009) also found that woman have higher self-esteem than male if associated with life satisfaction. The cross-cultural study evaluated the self-esteem and life satisfaction (family, friends, and budget) among school students from 31 countries. The result reveals that life satisfaction is highly correlated to self-esteem, and correlations between life satisfaction and self-esteem for female is better than have male (Diener & Diener, 2009).
Empathy and Self-Esteem
A analysis conducted by Turnage, Hong, Stevenson, and Edwards (2012), analysis aimed to research the relationship between and empathy, self-esteem, and forgiveness among 86 sociable employees from different ethnicity, age range from 19 to 51 yrs. old. When compared correlations between age group, self-esteem, empathy, forgiveness of self, and forgiveness of others, self-esteem was correlated to forgiveness, however, self-esteem and empathy were found not significant correlated, where r(80)=-0. 01 (Turnage, Hong, Stevenson, & Edwards, 2012). Regularly, another study investigate the relationship between self-esteem, empathy, types of loneliness, and coping skills among 75 adolescent in high school who are at risky for dropout from university or poor academics performance. Self-esteem was found negative correlated to loneliness, however, empathy was found not correlated to loneliness. Both self-esteem and empathy was found significantly correlated to coping skills. However, when put next self-esteem and empathy, there is absolutely no significant correlation between self-esteem and empathy as r=0. 06 (Mcwhirter, Besett-Alesch, Horibata, & Gat, 2002).
A study analyzed the partnership between self-esteem, empathy, and narcissism in Integrative Self-Knowledge and Narcissism Personality Inventory among 406 college or university students with get older mean 21. 3 years old. This study measured three varieties of empathy from Davis's Interpersonal Reactivity Index, including empathic matter, perspective taking, and personal stress. The result implies that narcissism is negative correlated to Integrative Self-Knowledge, empathic concern, perspective taking, and self-esteem while positive correlated to Narcissism Personality Inventory. Relationship between self-esteem and empathy was found significant, where self-esteem positive correlated to empathic matter (r=0. 18, p<0. 001), empathic perspective taking (r=0. 25, p<0. 001), and negative correlated to empathic problems (r=-0. 36, p<0. 001) (Ghorbani, Watson, Hamzavy, & Weathington, 2010). Consistently, another analysis conducted by Laible, Carlo, and Roesch (2004), aimed to investigated the relationship of connection with parent and peer and self-esteem and also to determine the role of empathy and public behaviour among 246 undergraduates students who enrolled into psychology course, with mean age group 18. 6 years old. When assessed the correlations between variables, empathy is available significant correlated to hostility and prosocial behavior. Self-esteem was found significant correlated to intense behaviour. However, empathy and self-esteem were found not significant correlated where r=0. 11 (Laible, Carlo, & Roesch, 2004).
In a report done by Findley & Ojanen, (2012), the association of narcissism, empathy, and perceptions of self-and others with communion (clones and affiliation) and social agency (ability and status) have been investigated. The study was conducted in two studies among undergraduate students. Study 1 examined the partnership of social goals (agentic and communal goals), narcissism, empathy, self-esteem, and belief of others. The aim of study 2 is examine whether there possessed replicated cross-sectional model from analysis 1 in research 2, by changing to different members. The effect for both analysis 1 and review 2 mentioned that empathy and perceptions of others were found favorably associated with communal goals. Empathy was found negatively associated and narcissism was favorably associated with agentic goals. Self-esteem was found positively related to both communal and agentic goals. Both analysis 1 and review 2 also found empathy is correlated to self-esteem, with zero-order relationship in review 1 (r=0. 28, p<0. 01), and review 2 (r=0. 34, p<0. 01) (Findley & Ojanen, 2012).
In a study done by Miklikowska (2012), review aimed to look for the effect of individual's differences on individual's democratic values by integrating variety of solution for individual variations (such as self-esteem, empathy, social trust, authoritarianism) among 1341 higher secondary students, aged 16 to 17 years of age. The result suggests that empathy might contribute to democratic values, and self-esteem had not been found related to democratic worth. Yet, when measure correlations between factors of individual variations, empathy and self-esteem were found not significant correlated which r=0. 022 (Miklikowska, 2012).
Trumpeter, Watson, O'Leary, and Weathington (2008) conducted a report to investigate relationship between recognized parental empathy and parent's love inconsistency on self-functioning of 232 undergraduate students by measuring their self-esteem, narcissism, and despair. The effect illustrated that perceived parental empathy have an effect on on student's self-functioning. Parent's empathy level was measured in subscale of empathic concern and perspective taking from Davis's Interpersonal Reactivity Index. The effect illustrated identified both father's and mother's empathic concern and point of view taking was favorably correlated to their child's self-esteem and their child are more have a tendency to take part in adaptive self-functioning (Trumpeter, Watson, O'Leary, & Weathington, 2008).
