This essay will explore whether culture bound symptoms are present or not. First, the article will first determine what culture bound syndromes are and how they may be categorised. Then this is followed by a dialogue of arguments aiding the lifestyle of CBS and arguments challenging their lifetime.
Introduction
Most mental health disorders are based on the Western scientific model of medication. The assumption is that mental health disorders stem from a natural basis and that they are found in every civilizations. The view that mental health problems are culture free is a universalist point of view. However a universalist perspective ignores the role of culture on mental health. Ignoring the role of culture can result in misdiagnosis and insufficient understanding about mental health problems in general.
Definition
Classification systems like the DSM IV ( Diagnostic and Statistical manual of mental health disorders)are a diagnostic tool for psychiatrists. The existing DSM is the DSM IV, where "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Release (DSM-IV) has been made for use across medical adjustments (inpatient, outpatient, incomplete hospital, consultation-liaison, clinic, private practice, and major good care), with community populations. It can be used by a wide range of health and mental health professionals. " The existing model of the DSM has made modest attempts to include mental health disorders from other cultures in order to address cultural issues. They are known as culture-bound syndromes and are defined as;
" Culture Bound syndromes are a culturally comparative approach to mental health disorders in which specific indicator are unique to that particular culture. recurrent, locality-specific habits of aberrant habit and troubling experience that may or might not be associated with a specific DSM-IV diagnostic category. Several habits are indigenously regarded as "illnesses", or at least afflictions, & most have local names
The word culture identifies the beliefs, norms and also beliefs that govern just how people who are within a precise group like a certain contemporary society or region that connect to the other person and these must be in a typical of acceptable behaviours and thoughts and each participant of the contemporary society has to learn these beliefs and understandings. This links to culture destined syndromes since as stated before, Culture bound syndromes are syndromes where are very unique to a certain culture only which would mean that their symptoms are just seen and experienced within that culture.
An types of a culture destined syndromes is Amok found in Malaysia. This CBS is where "this is a dissociative show featuring a amount of brooding followed by an outburst of hostile, violent or homicidal behavior aimed at people and objects. It seems that occurs only among men, and is also often precipitated by way of a perceived slight or insult. It is accompanied by persecutory ideas, automatism, amnesia or exhaustion, pursuing which the individual returns with their pre-morbid status. The sufferer, who is almost always a men between 20-45, has often experienced a loss of social position or a major life change. It really is now uncommon, and occurs primarily in rural locations. " 4
Another culture bound symptoms would be Dhat which occurs in India. Dhat is thought as "vague somatic symptoms of exhaustion, weakness, anxiety, lack of urge for food, guilt and erotic dysfunction attributed by the patient to lack of semen in nocturnal emissions, through urine and masturbation. " The stress related to semen loss can be followed back a large number of years to Ayurvedic texts, where the lack of a single drop of semen, the most valuable body liquid, could destabilize the whole body. "
These examples of culture bound symptoms stand for some syndromes are located in Asia. Culture bound syndromes also exist in Western modern culture - one of the most well known ones is anorexia. It really is "an eating disorder where people intentionally starve themselves. It triggers extreme weight reduction, which the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), area of the Country wide Institutes of Health (NIH), defines as at least 15 percent below the individual's normal body weight. "
Categorizing culture bound syndromes
Culture bound syndromes have been categorised by McCajor Hall (1988) in the six pursuing ways.
The first way is the fact that he believes that in order to be a culture destined symptoms, it must be a psychiatric illnesses that has not been originally triggered and it must be accepted as an illness locally, nonetheless it should not be matched in just a recognised category. The next way is the fact that, it must be considered a psychiatric condition that is not originally caused which is also recognised as a sickness locally but it must resemble a western category though it could lack some symptoms that are usually thought to be the top part within other civilizations. The third way is merely simply that the psychiatric health issues has not yet been recognised in the western. The fourth way is usually that the psychiatric disease that is situated in many civilizations may be actually caused but must be only regarded as an illness in one or some of the cultures. The fifth way would be that the psychiatric health problems is accepted culturally as a form of illness but it would still not be thought to be an acceptable health issues in the mainstream of western medicine. The 6th way is usually that the psychiatric disorder or syndrome supposedly taking place in a given culture, however in fact does not exist by any means the truth is but is used to justify the expulsion and execution of outcast just as witchcraft was.
Psychiatrist, Berry et al (1992) has argued that we now have three types of syndromes. First of all, absolute syndromes where the same indicator and incidence rates are found surrounding the world. The second is universal syndromes where the same symptoms are found around the world but where in fact the incidence rates can vary greatly between culture to culture and finally culturally comparative syndromes where in fact the symptoms are unique to a particular culture.
However there remains speculation about the presence of culture bound syndromes, some psychologists have a universalist position and keep maintaining they don't are present, whilst others take a relativist position and claim they actually.
Culture Bound syndromes do exist
Culture bound syndromes are unique in their own way since it can only just be seen within specific ethnicities. People who support this notion are psychologists like Pfeiffer and McCajor Hall. Hall thinks that for a syndrome to certainly be a culture bound symptoms, the syndrome itself must essentially be recognized by the locals of the precise culture and must be not known by another category like from the european culture. If it's recognised as or resembles a western mental illness, then the symptoms should at least have a few of its symptoms but not all.
Pfeiffer has argued that culture bound syndromes is probably not at home in the classification system such as the DSM IV. He believes that culture bound syndromes should be looked at at a level of the culture separately itself and not merely from one specific place like the vantage point of Washington DC ( the home of the American Psychological Relationship) and believes that it's specific in the following four aspects. The first aspect is the fact he believes that cultures fluctuate in those ideas that place people under intolerable stress, for example, in a single culture it might be anticipated to work, status or health issues while in another culture it could be due to relatives.
The second aspect he suggested was that different ethnicities allow and ban certain expressions and behaviours and what might be permitted as a culturally appropriate release mechanism using cultures may perhaps not be allowed in others if indeed they do not agree to it. For example within some civilizations, drinking alcohol is prohibited. Without this release device certain frustrations may be expressed in certain techniques are disguised in cultures where alcohol consumption can be regarded as a acceptable behaviour. Therefore a behaviour may be unique compared to that behaviour.
The third aspect is that we may have culture- specific interpretations within us; this might mean that a behaviour is a very important factor, however that which we take it to suggest for ourselves and what sense we make from it, can be a completely different thing. An example of this might be that back in the past, certain women were 'found out' or alternatively accused of being witches because of culturally specific interpretations of the behavior (Ussher 1992).
The fourth aspect that Pfeiffer suggested was that we never have explored the variety of culturally specific means of treating disorders, but folk medication is a good example of the ways that indigenous people treat their diseases. Another good example would be that through western sciences, people can be cured from their disease like fever, coughing and so on though the use of drugs but in the Asian culture, the Chinese use natural resources such as herbal selections or use acupuncture to get rid of the same illness the traditional western culture is curing but the only difference between the two civilizations is the method that has been used. From this, if it's true that Culture bound syndromes are a kind of folk disease that should be cared for by folk treatments, then this might mean that they may be qualitatively inconsistent with the aims and reason for the ICD and DSM.
Though Pfeiffer's view was different compared to Hall's view, there are a few similarities, and the most clear you might be the actual fact that the symptoms is determined by the culture itself. This demonstrates both psychologists view believe that don't assume all culture bound syndrome needs to be under Western knowledge and that it can be unique in its way.
Behaviours can be misinterpreted and misinterpreted. What's considered normal in one culture might not exactly be in another and vice versa.
"In a study in the early 1960s, Lee observed that out of your random test of Zulu women greater than a third experienced reported visible and auditory hallucinations involving 'angels, babies and little short hairy men'. Within the same research he discovered that more than half of the women involved in 'screaming behavior', often yelping for hours, days and nights and even weeks. Either of the reported behaviours would be viewed as grossly unusual in the western. Yet few of these women proved any other signals of mental disorder. Within their own culture their hallucinations and screaming were authentic. " Such a study shows that though not accepted internationally, different societies have different morals and various values. Zulus considered having hallucinations and screaming as appropriate and normal however such behaviours would be pathologised in the Western world. The contrary then can be true, behaviour can be considered unacceptable or a mental disease if it violates a society's norms.
Sam (1996) state governments that western subconscious explanations don't take into account all the experiences and behaviour of men and women from other cultures, psychology being western culture destined and blind to affects from elsewhere
Culture-bound syndromes do not exist
Yap (1974) has argued that human being mental disorders are extremely broad and period across all culture therefore maybe it's argued that the symptoms emerge from within the individual and these symptoms cluster along to create discrete types of mental illness. The next point is the fact he believes comparative psychiatry seeks to establish common links across cultures in the same way to the way in which comparative psychology explores links within humans which could be observed as culturally specific expressions of common real human problems and disorders that are addressed by the ICD and the DSM. Yap also mentions that he thinks a CBS such as Latah is an area cultural expression of 'most important fear response'.
There are also other quarrels which show that culture destined syndrome in reality do not can be found. One of these is that of 'Dhat', stated earlier. 'The Uk Journal of Psychiatry'includes a report called "Culture-bound syndromes: the story of Dhat symptoms" The analysis had two targets; the first was to assemble home elevators studies that have been clinical and empirical about the syndrome called Dhat and review the literature that was done. The second was to remove the info on historical data in several countries at different times. The method where they made a decision to do it was by manual books searches and electronic digital literature searches to be able to get information. They achieved it on the lifestyle and information of the semen-loss stress and anxiety in different cultures and also adjustments. The result was that although Dhat syndrome usually originated from Asia, the syndrome's ideas, historically have been discussed by other ethnicities in Britain, USA and Australia for example. This shows that from the resources gained, the symptoms show "global prevalence of this condition", even though it's mostly seen as a symptoms from the east. The final outcome they came up with was that "It seems that dhat (semen-loss stress) is not as culture-bound as previously thought. We propose that the idea of culture-bound syndromes should be customized in series with DSM-IV tips. " Also when these were collecting and analysing the results they found out that semen damage anxiety in European culture, Chinese language culture and in the Indian subcontinent were the same and what their views on the loss of semen meant to them within the culture. In fact the historical information could be traced back to Aristotle's time whilst on the Indian subcontinent this view could be found "In Ayurvedic texts which are dated between the 5th millennium BC and the 7th century Advertisement ". This show that people think as well about same but it's just called in different names. This is very significant as this facilitates with the common idea where it is suggested that mental health disorders are common and this culture bound syndromes are in fact just variants of the mental health disorders depending on what sort of symptoms they have got. This supports the view that culture destined syndrome shouldn't desire a new diagnostic conditions credited to it being modifications as mentioned before.
'The Uk Journal of Psychiatry'argues that the symptoms called 'taijin kyofusho' from Japan is similar to the western category of public phobia. Both syndromes cause the patients to are affected an intensive dread about their body, body part or even body functions where may be displeasing to other people. If we compare the syndrome taijin kyofusho with sociable phobia, both have symptoms like stress and anxiety, although to different diplomas, so we can say it's the same syndrome or mental disease. Culture bound syndrome may in simple fact only certainly be a syndrome for a specific culture in that it may well not have all the symptoms from the western culture.
Thomas Szasz an American psychologist also presumed that the thought of culture bound syndromes existing is obsolete though he also assumed that the idea of mental health disorders existing is also outdated too. The idea on mental health issues or mental health disorder where Thomas Szasz has came up with is the theory in which these don't really can be found. He believed that these are only a misconception as all the mental conditions does not have any real evidence where show they are a biological cause of mental health issues.
In a article about him by 'the new atlantis', " Szasz mocked the efforts of nearly every major American psychiatrist back to Benjamin Hurry, the profession's founding dad. "The subject matter [mental diseases] have hitherto been enveloped in mystery, " Rush had written in the late eighteenth century. "I've endeavored to bring them right down to the amount of all other diseases of the human body, and show that the mind and the body are relocated by the same triggers and subject to the same laws and regulations. " This is the error Szasz aimed to improve. "
This is seen Within his "The Misconception of Mental Health issues: Foundations of an Theory of Personal Conduct'. "It is a "Thomas Szasz's traditional book revolutionized taking into consideration the dynamics of the psychiatric career and the moral implications of its procedures. By diagnosing unwanted tendencies as mental disorder, psychiatrists, Szasz argues, absolve individuals of responsibility because of their actions and instead blame their alleged health problems. He also critiques Freudian psychology as a pseudoscience and warns up against the dangerous overreach of psychiatry into all aspects of modern life. " Thomas Szasz believes that psychiatry is just a sociable control system rather than a medical research as he assumed that psychiatry is nothing but just for folks to cope with other people's problems in living that is troubling them in life on and on. Thomas Szasz also feels that psychiatry is only a pseudo science that pretend from the remedies by using words where would make psychiatry sound medical during the last century. From this Thomas Szasz show people that such ideas like mental health disorders and culture bound syndromes do not are present.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the culture bound syndromes do are present somewhat as people such as Yap's idea believe that on the universal approach and believe culture bound syndromes are just mental health disorders but just at a lower scale. Another psychologists who assume that culture bound doesn't can be found is Thomas Szasz, though he also believes mental health disorders do not is present, his idea still nonetheless show it to be non-existence. However based on the article in the new Atlantic Szasz has been " transferred into story, bearing little resemblance to reality". At the moment now "Szasz is mostly remembered, if he is remembered in any way, as the great silly, a flat-earth adherent in enough time of telescopes and globes. Most medical students graduate without ever experiencing his name. " They assume that his believes and views are now obsolete and "One can hardly be stunned if Szasz has assumed the role reserved for all failed revolutionaries".
'The British Journal of Psychiatry'have also done historical research on the culture bound syndrome Dhat where they viewed how the view of dropping semen was way. They discovered that the views were the same, where each of them believed that semen are incredibly precious and valuable and a undesired characteristic. This show and facilitates the idea of universality where all mental health disorders can be found everywhere and they are all the same. This implies that the culture bound syndrome Dhat was not a really culture bound symptoms and it might have been exaggerated. The journal has concluded of their research that because the Dhat syndrome is not actually a culture destined symptoms they thought it might be, they suggested that the Dhat syndrome should adjust its criteria along the lines which is similar to the DSM IV. This once more helps the universality idea.
Unfortunately despite various quarrels showing culture destined syndromes lifestyle to be obsolete, you may still find a number of psychologists who have their own views and thinks that show that that culture destined syndrome will in fact exist. A good example would be psychologist McCajor Hall's believes. Hall believed that since culture bound syndromes are just present in specific ethnicities; he believed that so long a syndrome does not have all the symptoms that are from a european category it is definitely, a culture destined syndrome.
McCajor Hall along with his own views and ways enables people recognize that, not all disorders or syndromes in fact have to be compared to traditional western science nor is there to be under a western category in mental health disorders and the syndromes can maintain anywhere in different forms.
The psychologist Pfeiffer also offers his own views and thinks strengthens the culture destined syndrome furthermore, stating that culture varies in one to another. Pfeiffer believed the particular one problem in one culture might not exactly have the same problem in another culture and has talked about that with regards to the culture, behaviours can be only suitable or undesirable only according to their culture.
From here we see that culture destined syndromes in fact do exists but not totally and the amount in which it is exist might not exactly be high. What shows culture bound syndromes do is available, are from psychologists' ideas such as Pfeiffer and Hall. Their views tells us that even while some culture destined syndromes may have similar symptoms from the western category on mental health disorders, it still is a culture bound syndrome. The reason for it is because the universal strategy can lead to misdiagnosis. Also from Pfeiffer's first point where one ethnicities problem is might not exactly be the same as the other, we can see that in reality, you can't really say that ethnicities all over the world have the same problem. That is quite true as there are a great number of mental health disorders in this world that have yet to be found out and the psychologists and psychiatrists are yet at a rate which can understand the real human brain completely since it's so complex. With this we can once more say that culture bound syndromes can be found.
