This newspaper reviews and analyzes B. F. Skinners contributions to mindset. It is my intention to go over the important influences of his methodological inventions and his interpretation of man and animal behaviors. Skinner's origins in traditional and/ or early on behaviorism guided him to develop and achieved better results on his ideas and studies related to exterior stimuli. Skinner's contributions, inventions, and writings have made him perhaps one of the most popular, renowned and yet controversial psychologists of the twentieth century.
Skinner was interested on emphasizing the value of mindset as research. He understood that action was activated by environmental stimuli and/or reinforces. Among the first contributions of Skinner to the field is the introduction of a theory called Operant Fitness, which is build into the idea that our behaviors derive from specific reaction to situations or circumstances inside our environment. When a specific Stimulus-Response (S-R) is rewarded, it is much more likely the individual will respond to it each time.
Skinner also made the difference of calling reinforcement to the incentive obtained, making it an essential component of his S-R theory. Reinforcement (positive or negative) is whatever will strengthen the most needed response. Van Wagner (2010) shows that, "Operant Fitness (sometimes known as instrumental fitness) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for conducts. Through an operant conditioning, an association is manufactured between a action and a result for that patterns" (para. 1). Skinner thought that behaviors aren't based on inside thoughts or thoughts but to exterior and observable causes (Van Wagner, 2010).
Skinner operant fitness theory and t he use of rewards to change the behavior also has been applied with enough performance in many situations; for example, as part of behavior adjustment in professional medical or behavioral centers and within class room management in school or educational settings. Hothersall (2004) also signifies that "Today, Skinner's habit system is extensively taught to teachers. Coaching can be regarded as a "reinforcement contingency management"; teachers and students are encouraged to place "behavioral goals" (p. 526). "In a healthcare facility I work for, our Autism program applied tendencies system and uses negative and positive reinforcements to be able to shape habit or even to replace or convert a poor behavior into an optimistic habit" (Rivera, J. , 2010).
B. F. Skinner was popular about his impressive resources and way to conduct his tests. He started working with animals to review operant conditioning; his most famous invention was his Skinner's box which was similar to the puzzle box used by Thorndike, see figure below (BF Skinner: Operant Conditioning, 2010).
Skinner Field illustration operant conditioning
(BF Skinner: Operant Conditioning, 2010).
According to Bernstein and Nash (2008), "operant conditioning is a learning process through which rewards and punishments shape, maintain and change habit" (p. 13).
In order to secure a initial view of the use of the techniques of reinforcement from Skinner, we have to compare its procedure with two others, "the caring" deal with and "the punitive" approach in the treatment to slow down children. First it is through suggestions recognized with presentations of respect and interest. Nevertheless, the personnel in this field inform that the method of the love and tenderness not necessarily help the kind of action that is wished. A negative boy will not only become cooperative because he is treated kindly. Beneath the punitive approach, the kids are threatened to be punish if indeed they do not react according to desires of the scholastic regulators. This method is something as well as "if you want to remain in this place, it'll be better that you follow the guidelines. "
In contrast with these two strategies Skinner utilize rewards (positives reinforces) to strengthen the ordered habit, when the approved action is rewarded with cards that can be exchanged by a number of goods, privileges and extensions, the degree of control of the tendencies that can be obtained is amazing, to obtain credit cards, the kids will execute many duties that simply did not do under loving or punitive conditions.
All we realize that to obtain certain results it is needed to be sure steps, that is to say, to carry out involved functions. Skinner telephone calls "operating" to the engaged acts because we should operate in a standard to secure a result. The engaged acts are the average ones to attain a target. The fitness produces changes in means that can as well change the tendencies.
The contingency term can be defined as "dependency of". To state that the reinforcement is contingent for an operant fitness means that this depends upon the occurrence of this behavior. An individual is not reinforced unless he/she behaves correctly.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Skinner found throughout the studies that intermittent reinforcement was able to keep the rate of recurrence of the respond. Schedules have typical and reliable effects on response rate even more that whenever there is reinforcement after every response Hothersall (2004). The schedules of reinforcement are "rules", that determine when it'll upon a delivery of reinforcement during a presentation credited to a specific behavior. There are different types of schedules reinforcements listed below are just a handful of them.
Continuous reinforcement
It is named to this kind of program, when the reinforcement is proved at every minute to be produced at any respond. Example: When in a class, a student raises the hand to give his thoughts and opinions; the professor pronounces his name presenting him the opportunity to speak up.
Partial reinforcement
This reinforcing occurs when some of the manners emitted by the organism are strengthened however, not all. Inside the daily life, in the institution, university, etc. , these kind of programs arise. Example: - When we called to a person by telephone, and see your face is not available, the behavior has not been reinforced; not meaning that you won't happen the next time.
According to the tests created by Skinner, the programs of partial reinforcement, are very stable and keep maintaining the patterns per periods longer than the schedules of ongoing reinforcement. The schedules of incomplete reinforcement can be programmed taking into consideration the volume of responds. It is therefore necessary to ingest consideration:
- Ratio schedules
- Interval schedules
Ratio reinforcement
These schedules consider the number of responses before delivering reinforcement; the reinforcement will depend on the tendencies of the organism predicated on the amount of responses.
This timetable is subdivided in two:
Fixed ratio: It is when the reinforcement occurs whenever the topic fulfills a certain amount of responses which may have been founded beforehand. Example: If it is thought to a salesman, that by each ten ice products that he sell, one will be his, the resolved ratio will be 10.
Variable ratio: The reinforcing happens after having a variable amount of answers, not after a fixed amount. This amount differs from reinforcement in reinforcement. Example: If it now could be said to the same salesman, on the basis of a previous founded variable amount, that the reinforcement will appear (the ice cream) when he sells the first ice cream, the second reinforcement will get to him when he markets the third ice cream, third when he markets the fourth and fourth when he markets the eight. Thus the worthiness of the variable ratio is selected by this ratio (1-3-4-8) which in this case the quantity is 16, being four the average.
Interval reinforcement
This is when specific amount of time goes by before providing the reinforcement. The period schedules are described based on the time, but they are reinforced on the basis of the first response obtained after approved the expected time; the reinforcement, whatever the program (ratio or interval) the should always be a effect due to a response. Two are types of interval schedules:
Fixed interval: Are those in where an interval is established, where the first response is strengthened or rewarded after a specific amount of time has passed.
Variable period: It really is when a response is reinforced or awarded after having a non-established timeframe has transferred.
Other schedules of reinforcement
Multiple schedule of reinforcement
It consists of several impartial schedules, which appear in successive form, each one of them in the existence of a quality stimulus. The multiple schedules are put together programs, in which a typical discriminative stimulus is added.
Concurrent schedule
They are also developed by several schedules. Unlike the multiple schedules, the programs aren't successive, but simultaneous; the individual can emit two different reactions that are reinforced simultaneously by self-employed schedules, but parallel in the time. The reinforcement anticipated in each program is independent to each other. This type of schedule is utilized when it is desired to reinforce more than one response all together, as it happens in the programs of cultural behavior.
Proportional schedule
In these schedules, a proportion between certain measurement of the action and certain dimension of the reinforcement has been established. Generally, these methods are given by the consistency of the reinforcement, however they can also follow properties including the magnitude of the response and the magnitude of the reinforcement. In this particular schedule, a lot more the subject responds the more reinforcement it receives; there is a direct proportion between behavior and reinforcement. The relationship can also be opposite; depending on the intentions of the program. It is okay to allow the subject to determine the criterion of reinforcement through the own emission of its patterns. For instance: when a guy makes two exercises of mathematics, receives one caramel; if it creates four, it gets two caramels, etc.
Behaviorism and applied behavior analysis
Skinner was one of the primary contributors in the development of modern behaviorism and considered the daddy and one of the originators of applied patterns analysis (ABA). Skinner actually considered himself to be always a behavioral analyst when compared to a psychologist (Hothersall, 2004). ABA is a subdivision of psychology which intends to develop a combined framework for human being and animal habit build on principles of learning. His base of behavioral examination was the starting point for his experimental researches. Although he was affect by the stimulus response conditioning of Ivan Pavlov, he wanted to vary and was more interest in the levels or improvement of the manners. This led him to the development of the Skinner's package, operant fitness and schedules of reinforcement. Skinner's most important contribution to applied habit analysis was the style and content of his technology. By his style, I mean his methodology, which varies from his empirical epistemology to his experimental techniques. By the content of his knowledge, After all what he learned with this strategy the basic ideas of operant tendencies.
Behavior Modification
This contains shifting or changing the results of a specific behavior. Example of this - instead of using negative reinforcement by punishing a child when misbehave, the adult provide positive reinforcement when the child is involved with a good habit. Boeree (2006) point out another usage of this technique "There is an offshoot of tendencies changes called the token economy. This is employed primarily in corporations such as psychiatric nursing homes, juvenile halls, and prisons. Certain rules are made explicit in the institution, and behaving yourself properly is rewarded with tokens, poker chips, tickets, funny money, documented records, etc. Certain poor action is also often followed by a withdrawal of these tokens. The tokens can be traded set for attractive things such as candy, cigarettes, games, movies, time out of the establishment, and so forth. It has been found to be very effective in retaining order in these often difficult establishments" (para. 20).
Behavior modification is one of the very most used techniques I have used in places like developmental delay and behavioral centers. Hothersall (2004) also stated that "most residential programs for the mentally retarded employ operant guidelines as a typical part of their treatment" (p. 528).
Baby tender
Not all Skinner's ideas were accepted well by many people. His efforts also helped bring a few controversies. In 1943 Skinner's partner was pregnant for the next time and asked him to design a crib that will be safer for the infant. Skinner developed the environment cig also known as baby tender. It is quite simply a "self-cleaning" device with humidity and temperature handled box with a Plexiglass window. Due to skinner has developed what's known the "Skinner's box", people started to speculate and created rumors categorizing it as experimental and cruel. There have been also speculations that her child Deborah dedicated suicide because she's spent a lot of time there (Vargas, 2005). Due to these reasons, I believe this technology has been one of the very most controversial ones of his life. Thanks to all Skinner's creations (literary and mechanised) I could say he has also become one of the most controversial psychologists of the time.
Project pigeon
During World War II, Skinner began focusing on a job which goal was to attempt to develop a missle guided by way of a pigeon. He statrted to train pigeons to regarded and peck certain goals therefore would hold the missle into a specific location. Althought he had some success the pigeon task was canceled because the military possessed another " inside info " job in process, possibly the radar. Nevertheless Skinner discovered that pigeons develops and condition closer than rats allowing the procedure of research and and contingencies to be quicker (Vargas, 2005).
Walden two
Other than psychology, Skinner also got a significant in British and it has been said that he wished to be considered a novelist and due to challenging he wrote Walden two. Hothersall (2004) refers to this as Skinner's utopia; "Skinner put in the summertime of 1945 writing a utopian novel, Walden Two. In it he defined an imaginary community where operant rules of behavioral control are used to make a harmonious and happy modern culture" (p. 522).
What telephone calls my attention in this "psychological novel" is Skinner's idea of a perfect modern culture where everyone is happy. Will there be is such a thing as everyone is happy? Predicated on Skinner's perspective it is hard to disprove that as though there is something you do not like, change it out. If you live in that town or modern culture is basically because you want to rather than people have been enforced to stay. This explains that folks are staying because they are getting positive reinforcement and also have not been punished.
Behavioral Pharmacology
After Skinner relocated to the University of Minnesota (1936-1945), he and W. T. Heron (1937) published what has been thought to be the first newspaper in behavioral pharmacology-"Effects of Caffeine and Benzedrine after Conditioning and Extinction" (Laties, 2003; Poling, 2000, pp. 16-20). They applied the style and content of Skinner's science to analyze the effects of drugs on behavior and vice versa. Although the analysis got no discernible impact on pharmacology at the time (Dews, 1987), Skinner was afterward a solid advocate of such applications (Morse, 2005).
