Taboo words are an integral part of language that is meant to be avoided at all times, but are nevertheless used in practice. Most taboo words result from taboo serves. Dictionaries have special brands for taboo words which alert the users that taboo words are not suitable. Taboo words in dictionaries are identified in patterns which make them appear less offensive, and provide an alternative for these people. Only taboo words which are believed to be the least offensive have example phrases in their entries in dictionaries. The most offensive group of taboo words are taboo words related to sexuality. Inconsistencies in labelling between dictionaries establish that the negative connotations of taboo words aren't inherent in vocabulary, but culturally motivated.
Taboo words are those words that are considered in bad flavor by many people or should be averted because they speak about realities that are stark or vulgar. Taboo words usually make reference to sex, religion and necessities such as the action of emptying the bladder or the bowels.
The general goal of this newspaper is to see and article on the treating taboo words in standard words dictionaries, among words without taboo connotations. The paper will offer a short introduction in to the problematics of taboo vocabulary, but will for the most part examine the treating taboo words in dictionaries- just how they are defined, labels that specify them and the instances that go along with them. By comparing the entries for taboo words in five dictionaries, it will be shown which brands for taboo words exist and if they are the same in every dictionaries; whether all dictionaries follow the same style when determining taboo words and with what purpose, and whether the treatment od taboo words in dictionaries can cause any problems for dictionary users. Through examining the entries for taboo words which contain examples, it will be identified which taboo words will be the least insulting, and by contrasting labels it'll be driven which taboo words will be the most insulting. Noting the inconsistencies between your dictionaries in defining and labelling taboo words will show that taboo words are not inherently unpleasant, but established as taboo by the speaker systems of the language and the culture they participate in.
Theoretical background
Taboo words, generally known as curse words, profanity, swearwords and offensive talk, are words that aren't supposed to be uttered by any means, or at least not in polite discussion, because they're regarded as improper or immoral, or thought to be forbidden supernaturally. Typical examples of taboo words would be expressions like Damn! or Shit! (Akmajian et al. 306). Taboo words are used to make the vocabulary we speak more graphic or more concrete, just like metaphors do (Jay 137). They add psychological shading to language and can speak strong thoughts, ideas, attitudes and opinions in a way non- taboo words cannot (Jay 137). They are being used expressing anger and annoyance, for insulting and often as intensifiers in phrases, such as with the sentence ''Wheres that damn reserve!'' (Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary Online).
The phrase taboo comes from the Polynesian terminology and means ''forbidden'' (Allan and Burridge 2). Taboo words are, as their name suggests, linked to taboo serves. The function of incest is taboo, therefore is the term motherfucker- but there are other words that are taboo, as the action they denote is not. Talking about gender is often considered taboo, but the act of gender itself is not at all forbidden, or incorrect, if it is done at the best time and place, and with the appropriate person. Still, words linked to a taboo action are likely to become taboo words (Allan and Burridge 2). It's important to note that ''what matters as taboo terms is something described by culture, and not by anything inherent in the terms. '' (Akmajian et al. 307). Which means that taboo words and expressions indicate the traditions and views of men and women belonging to a specific culture or culture. (Trudgill 18)
Taboo dialect in the English terms can be split into three broader categories. The first category includes taboo words related to faith. Typical examples out of this category are expressions such as God!, Damn!, Jesus! and Hell!. Since words out of this category refer to the supernatural, they evoke the emotions of awe and fear. This category represents the historical basis of swearing in the English language (Pinker). The next category involves taboo words which denote certain body functions and effluvia. The taboo words out of this category provoke thoughts of disgust due to the fact that one infectious diseases can be carried from one person to some other through physical effluvia (Pinker). Typical good examples from this category are taboo words such as shit, asshole and fart. The 3rd category involves taboo words related to sexuality- erotic organs, different labels for the function of gender and insults related to one's erotic orientation or intimate habits. Examples out of this category will be the words fuck, pussy and dyke. Another category can be added to people already talked about- a category that involves insulting labels for disfavoured (mainly for their race or nationality) individuals or groups. The words out of this category provoke feelings of hatred and contempt, and the normal example is the word nigger.
Methods and material
The data for this research was obtained by searching through online dictionaries for taboo words and observing their respected entries. Five online dictionaries were chosen: Oxford Advanced Learner's British Dictionary Online, Merriam- Webster Online Dictionary, Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary Online, Macmillan Online Dictionary and Longman British Dictionary Online. The reason behind choosing online dictionaries was that the printed versions of these dictionaries that have been available were not all from the same time and weren't the current types. Online dictionaries are constantly improved, making them suited to a comparative research. These five dictionaries were chosen because each of them come from reputable publishing companies and are edited by professional lexicographers. Only standard vocabulary dictionaries, rather than specialised dictionaries (such as slang dictionaries), were used because the purpose of the study was to observe how taboo words were treated among all the ''normal'' words. After choosing which dictionaries to utilize, the words that would be analyzed were chosen predicated on the books consulted for this research paper, by adding words similar in meaning. The words were the following: (ass, asshole, fart, piss, shit, bastard, bitch, cock, cunt, dick, dyke, fag, fuck, motherfucker, pussy, screw, slut, whore, bloody, damn, darn, hell, Dago, Gook, nigger, Paddy, Paki and Spic - 28 in total. They were then divided into four teams: Areas of the body and effluvia (ass, asshole, fart, piss, and shit, ); Sex and insults related to sexuality (bastard, bitch, cock, cunt, dick, dyke, fag, fuck, motherfucker, pussy, screw, slut and whore); Religious beliefs (bloody, damn, darn and hell) and Racial insults (Dago, Gook, nigger, Paddy, Paki and Spic). The research included checking and noting the labels and the definitions used in distinct dictionaries, as well as the illustrations (or having less cases), and comparing them.
Analysis and results
This comparative analysis answered the next questions:
- Which labels and warnings are being used in dictionaries to warn the users about taboo words?
- How are taboo words described in dictionaries?
- Are there any differences between dictionaries in the way the words used in the study are labelled and described?
- Are there any example sentences in entries for taboo words?
- Which band of taboo words/ which specific taboo expression is the most highly marked?
Labels. Every dictionary has product labels assigned to words which notify an individual of the status of the term and the register it is meant to be used in. This research shows that we now have many means of caution dictionary users about taboo words. The labels that are being used to alert users about taboo words in Oxford Advanced Learner's British Dictionary Online are: taboo, slang, casual, disapproving and unpleasant. The labels look before the explanation of the word; they are written in italics and bracketed. Alongside these brands, additional warnings are available in this is of the word. The additional brands are: very offensive, not polite, unpleasant, a swear term, and offensive for some people.
The labels that make reference to taboo words in Merriam- Webster Online Dictionary are: sometimes vulgar, often vulgar, usually vulgar, obscene, usually obscene, usually disparaging, often disparaging and usually unpleasant. The labels seem before the explanation of the term, in italics. Only one additional label was found in the definition of the word- a generalized term of misuse.
The brands for taboo words within the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary Online are: informal, very informal, slang, unpleasant and disapproving. The labels appear before the definition of the term and are written in capitals. Only one additional label was within this is of the term and that you are just a little rude.
The product labels that are used to warn users about taboo words in the Macmillan Online Dictionary are: impolite, offensive and informal. As in the case of the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary Online, the labels appear prior to the definition of the term and are written in capitals. The additional labels found in the definition were extremely offensive and insulting.
In the Longman English Dictionary Online, labels for taboo words are: taboo, informal, not polite and just a bit rude. Labels appear before the definition of the term in italics and in another colour than this is. The additional labels are: offensive, very unpleasant in combination with ''Do not use this term'' and insulting. What this guide shows is that each dictionary has its system of labelling taboo words, with different words used as caution for the users. This is not unexpected because every dictionary has its own labelling plan which is applied to all the words, not just taboo words. A number of the labels do come in more than one dictionary, like offensive, informal and taboo. In most cases, it can be concluded that users are warned within an sufficient way that taboo words aren't appropriate, not only due to brands themselves, but also because of the graphical design of the labels (written in capitals, italics, or in another shade). However, one potential problem for dictionary users can be diagnosed just by looking at the labels- words like often, sometimes, just a bit and usually often modify brands for taboo words. This can create misunderstandings, especially since explanations of most taboo words are not followed by cases. The user himself, particularly if he is not really a native loudspeaker, cannot know where cases he is allowed to use this word and where it might have severe consequences. The sole dictionary which explicitly expresses that some words should not be used whatsoever is the Longman British Dictionary Online, with the label ''Do not use this word'' within the explanations of the taboo words.
Definitions. When it comes to just how taboo words are defined, there are two types of explanations found in the dictionaries evaluated in this research. The first type of description is the synonym explanation, where just the synonym of the taboo word is given, usually a technological or a more polite term, without the additional explanation, as in the case of the word cock in the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary Online :
'' COCK- (taboo, slang) a male organ''.
The second kind of definition gives a scientifical description of the phenomenon that your taboo term denotes, as in the case of the word fart in the Merriam- Webster Online Dictionary:
'' FART- often vulgar: to expel intestinal gas from the anus''.
Both types of definitions appear in all the five dictionaries examined and they stand for the typical way taboo or unpleasant words are usually defined in dictionaries. The target they show is making taboo words and principles seem less offensive. (joint 128).
Examples. Another aspect of the treating taboo words in dictionaries that will probably be worth considering are types of phrases or phrases which contain taboo words and words that collocate with them. There are various sorts of dictionaries, and not all of them provide good examples for all your words they list, but by checking which taboo words have good examples in most dictionaries, and which do not, it can be concluded which taboo words will be the least offensive. In case a dictionary offers an example, it actually shows the user how a word is meant to be used and in a way gives permission for its usage. The term hell had a good example in every of the five dictionaries evaluated, the words bastard, bloody, damn and darn in four, and what shit and bitch in three. All of those other words had a good example in one or none of them of the dictionaries analyzed. This indicates that what belonging to the group of taboo words related to religious beliefs are no longer considered very insulting, which is often affirmed by looking at labels used for these words- informal and impolite prevail, and three dictionaries do not give any alert for a few of the taboo words from this group. The fact that what owned by the group of taboo words related to religion aro no longer perceived as very unpleasant is in contrast with the actual fact that the historical reason behind swearing in British is faith (Pinker). Linguist interpret this occurrence because of this of the secularization of Western culture. (Pinker) The words shit and bitch participate in two different groups of taboo words: shit is one of the group that identifies body parts and effluvia, and bitch is one of the group that refers to gender and insults related to sexuality. Both of the words belong to day-to-day talk, and are mostly labelled as impolite or informal, but also offensive in a few dictionaries.
Most offensive words. Deciding the most offensive taboo expression and taboo phrase group was the next phase in this research. By simply comparing the labels, it was concluded that the most firmly proclaimed group was the group consisting of words related to sexuality- words referring to intimacy (fuck, screw), intimate organs (cock, cunt, dick, pussy) and insults related to sexuality (bitch, dyke, fag, motherfucker, whore). These words were generally labelled as very offensive, vulgar and obscene. Cunt is the most unpleasant phrase in this group. It was labelled as taboo/ slang/ very offensive (Oxford), usually disparaging & obscene (Merriam- Webster), offensive (Cambridge), offensive/ extremely unpleasant (Macmillan), and taboo/ ''Do not utilize this word'' (Longman). Cunt has been the most very seriously taboo phrase in English for years and years, left over so for almost all users, especially women, since it conveys strong misogynist connotations (Allan and Burridge 52). Probably the most offensive specific taboo word of the ones that were examined was the word nigger. All of the dictionaries strongly warn against this phrase, and Merriam- Webster telephone calls it ''the most offensive and inflammatory racial slur in British''. In other dictionaries it is labelled as very or extremely offensive, and Longman areas that what should not be used whatsoever. Other words from the group consisting of insults over a racial or countrywide basis (Gook, Dago, Spic, Paddy) are also strongly warned against, and usually labelled as unpleasant or very unpleasant. This implies that the planet is moving towards tolerance when it comes to questions of competition and nationality (but also sexual orientation and religion), and these kinds of insults are actually completely undesirable.
Inconsistencies. There are certain inconsistencies between dictionaries in the way some taboo words are identified and labelled. This is seen in the way the term slut is labelled in the dictionaries examined, as shown in Stand 1.
WORD: Slut
Oxford ALD Online: disapproving, offensive
Merriam- Webster Online: very informal
Cambridge ALD Online: offensive, insulting
Macmillan Online Dictionary: taboo casual,
Longman English Dictionary Online: very offensive- ''Do not utilize this word''
Oxford, Macmillan and Longman consider slut more offensive than Cambridge does, while Merriam- Webster provides no caution whatsoever relating to this word being a taboo word. Since for each dictionary this word has an alternative amount of ''offensiveness'', it can be concluded that the treating taboo words in dictionaries proves one of the initial cases made about taboo words- there is nothing inherently unpleasant or insulting in them. What makes them taboo is culturally, or even separately, determined, which is why even dictionaries can't be uniform in the way they label taboo words.
Conclusion
This research paper has evaluated the entries for taboo words in five standard vocabulary dictionaries. The purpose was to see how taboo words were treated among other words that are suitable in polite or formal talk. Users are warned by labels in dictionaries that taboo words should be averted. The graphical design of labels is also used for this function. The labels are generally different in every the dictionaries anticipated to different labelling procedures, but some tend to be found in every of the dictionaries. A potential problem for dictionary users, especially second language learners, is the fact that labels are often combined with words such as sometimes, usually, marginally etc. In cases like this, the user cannot deduct from labels when it's acceptable to employ a certain taboo word so when it can have severe implications. When defining taboo words, every one of the dictionaries which were reviewed use two habits: defining the taboo term with a more polite or medical synonym, or by way of a scientific explanation. The normal goal of these two patterns is to make taboo words and what they designate seem less offensive. Through evaluating the entries for taboo words which contain samples, it was motivated that only taboo words which are the least offensive have example phrases. The least offensive taboo words are the ones related to religion. By comparing product labels it was figured the most unpleasant taboo words belong to the group related to sexuality, and that the most offensive individual taboo term is the word nigger. Inconsistencies found between the dictionaries in the way they label the same taboo words verify the assumption that there is nothing at all inherently insulting or unpleasant in taboo words- they are really taboo as a result of speakers of the words and the culture they belong to. A suggestion for further research is to historically keep track of product labels used for taboo words to see if the way they are identified has changed and exactly how and monitor if they will change soon.
