A number of studies have been conducted on ICT in higher learning corporations in developed countries and in some developing countries outside Ghana. An effort has been made to review some of the literature highly relevant to this study, with reference to the three individual objectives of the study that are; use of ICT in coaching and learning, cost of ICT training materials and tech support team, and administrative support with regards to ICT execution.
The program of ICT in Teaching and Learning
Towards the end of the 1980s, the term 'computer systems' was changed by 'IT' (information technology) indicating that there had been a change in the emphasis from processing technology to a new era that included the capacity to store and retrieve information. The word 'ICT' (information and communication technology) was later created in 1992 around the time when e-mail began to become available to the general public (Pelgrum and Law, 2003). Alemna and Sam (2006) quoting Bartlett (2002), state that 'ICT refers to systems for producing, saving, sending and retrieving digital data'. (Adeya, 2002) in a United Nations Economic Percentage (ECA) report, claims that ICTs cover Online sites provision, telecommunications equipment and services, information technology equipment and services, advertising and broadcasting, libraries and records centers, commercial information providers, network-based information services, and other related information and communication activities. ICT can thus certainly be a diverse group of scientific tools and resources used for creating, storing, managing and conversing information electronically.
(Rouse, 2011) consents this definition of ICT but further broadly details the range of systems embraced by ICT: ICT includes the full range of computers, computer software, and telecommunications facilities. Hence it offers computing devices which range from handheld calculators to excellent computers. It offers the full selection of screen and projection devices used to view computer output. It includes the neighborhood area systems and large area networks that allow computer systems and folks to communicate with each other. It offers digital cameras, video games, CDS (CDs), Digital Versatile Discs (Dvd disks), Cell telephones, telecommunication satellites, and fiber content optics. It includes computerized equipment, and computerized robots. In a brief and snappy term ICT as applied to education, are those solutions include computers, the Internet, multimedia simulations, electronic labs, broadcasting systems (radio and television), and telephony that can help in not only delivery of education, but also learning techniques itself. These solutions has been named an important tool for knowing a fresh paradigm of learner-centered education that better supports learners' needs through differentiated and individualized teaching (Watson, 2011). Components that provide mutual content, examining learning, diagnosing scholar needs, supplying immediate reviews, given effective remediation, and storing examples of learner work (e. g. , files) are vital elements in digital technology that can support learner-centered teaching for diverse learners (Bush, 2009); (Reigeluth, 2008).
Furthermore ICT can enhance international cooperation and networking in education and professional development. There are types of ICT options from videoconferencing where two or more participants, based in different physical locations, can easily see and hear one another instantly (i. e. live) using special equipment. It is a method of accomplishing interactive video marketing communications over a normal high-speed Web connection. A videoconference can be either two-way (point-to-point) or multipoint, linking three or more sites with audio and video tutorial. (Skill, 2004). Also through media delivery to internet sites which can be used to meet the challenges teachers face today. Therefore, ICT will manage to providing more adaptable and effective ways for lifelong professional development for today's educators. Because of this both teachers and students are certain to get vast benefits for his or her empowerment and development.
Cost and Technical Support in ICT Implementation
According to (Businessdictionary. com, 2012) cost is an amount that needs to be paid or abandoned to be able to get something. Execution according to the study identifies the application of ICT in Education. The expense of ICT training materials was considered to be among the issues that could adversely affect the execution of ICT in Tamale Polytechnic. Regarding to (Mulira, Sept 2004) the price tag on a Table top Computer (PC) linked to the Internet is often too expensive for many people in growing countries and for those who can afford a Personal computer, regular maintenance, virus coverage and servicing, is thus another problem that is not easily workable by the first era computer users. In comparison to traditional forms of off-campus learning, technology facilitated has shown to be quite expensive in every areas of factor, infrastructure, course development and course delivery (Oliver, 2002).
Empirical studies on the relationship between cost of ICT training materials and ICT execution are many. For example (Makau, 1986) regarded that financial resources form an integral factor to the successful implementation and integration of ICT in higher education in Kenya. (Mumtaz, 2000) expose that limited resources within academic institutions is a superb hindrance to the take up of ICT and insufficient pcs and software in the class can limit what teachers are able to do with ICT. (United Nations Seminar, May 2012) reported that one of the issues facing integration of ICT in learning and educating in expanding countries are high cost of software and hardware.
The rate of diffusion and use of ICT in producing countries are significantly less than developed countries (Sharma, 2003). Malcom and Godwyll (2008) in their research, diffusion of information communication technology in decided on Ghanaian older high universities discloses that the basic problems facing ICT execution in older high institutions are insufficient enough ICT infrastructure and coherent ICT coverage construction. Furthermore, (Ensafi R. , 2007) reported that, in Iran the high price of computer systems is not the key impediment in the development of e-learning but on the otherhand of federal government insurance plan for allocating colleges, schools and general public places with hardware infrastructure and new computer systems. Allocating personal computers into colleges and corporations is not too difficult for the government but keeping them up and running is a larger challenge. The study further demonstrated that in most developing countries laboratory coordinators in a few companies of higher learning aren't skilled enough in resolving specialized problems. (Aryatuha, 2007)reveals that where ICT is presented the competency to take care of it is significantly low scheduled to lack of enough resources as the majority of African economies are so poor. It is therefore sure that successful use of ICT in establishments of higher learning in expanding countries is hindered by high cost of ICT tools.
The price of computer hardware and software continues to drop generally in most developed countries, however in developing countries, the expense of computers is more costly credited to high degrees of poverty and insufficient money (A. S. Sife, 2007) et al, Following up to this affirmation, it was reported that whereas a workplace top computer might cost less than a month's wage in the USA, the average worker in developing countries may necessitate more than six month's income to buy one. The analysis further show that, apart from the basic computer systems themselves, other costs related with peripherals such as monitors, projectors, printers, modem, and further disk drives could be beyond the reach of some institutions of higher learning in most growing countries.
(Ssewanyana, 2007) in their research, stated that usage of personal computers and internet is high in medium and large companies, and mainly businesses owned by foreigners. The small firms that happen to be mostly locally had, have low use because of the high cost of requisite investment, limited knowledge and skills, and being very responsive to charges. The results of the study suggest that there may be need to broaden ICT training facilities for the local entrepreneurs to take advantage of opportunities related with the execution of ICT; and to solve charges on the Internet services and other ICT consumables to lower the expense of acquisition. The results further point out that individuals do appreciate the contribution of ICT to the performance of their firms, but the various impediment such as high costs of hardware, software, Internet and ICT pros amongst others are a barrier to their progress. One has to go through vigorous training in order to become computer knowledgeable individual, however, high cost of ICT training materials would impede this technique. Though many analysts urged for the use of computers in management activities, there are realistically lots of problems which impact the effective exploitation of computers. In accord with the declaration, (Zziwa, 2001), in his newspaper on networking and the use of information technologies, pointed out that computer usage is afflicted by training, organization, and offer of resources. With reduced costs on ICT tools, adoption of ICT development could be advantageous over other inventions. Matching to. . . . . . . (2007), in universities, polytechnics and schools in Ghana, all departments, institutes, faculties and institutions have included the acquisition of more computer systems, the establishing of geographic area networks, specialized assistance and training of staff in their strategic plans, however, much as there are such work in establishments, ICT implementation has not taken a firm foundation among staff and students. This may be as a result of high costs in purchasing computer systems and related peripherals, bad attitude of lecturers towards using personal computers in teaching. This indicates that when the expense of ICT training materials is high, ICT execution in companies of higher learning tend to be nominal and vice versa. High cost of ICT training materials could be assumed a obstacle to teaching using computers in establishments of higher learning in North Ghana. However, this assumption remains a theoretical one until it is proven and thus the necessity for this review to determine the magnitude to which cost of ICT training materials influences ICT implementation in polytechnics in Northern Ghana. While most studies above show that the expense of ICT training materials cause an issue to the adoption of ICT, (Mulira, Sept 2004) and (Ensafi R. , 2007) appear to be taking a different position of considering cost of computer as a less important factor. Regarding to (Mulira, September 2004), Cost of ICT training materials had not been taken as a major inhibitor of ICT implementation in corporations of higher learning. They considered lecturer's recognition and good attitude towards ICT as necessary conditions for effective ICT execution. They urged that institutions of higher learning in Uganda could adopt freeware and available software for teaching and learning activities. Much because so many studies above were worried about cost of ICT training materials, the population researched was different. For instance, some studies were worried about secondary school teachers while others considered only post graduate lecturers like (Ebenezer Malcolm, 2008) for older high institutions in Ghana and (Namukangula, 2007) for post graduate lecturers in Uganda. In addition such studies were in line with other companies of higher learning like Makerere University, Kyambogo University or college, Iranian University or college and none was related to any organization of higher learning ( polytechnic) in north region. To donate to the closure of this gap, this review needed to check out the result of cost of ICT training materials towards ICT execution in polytechnic in the northern Ghana.
Administrative Support in relation to ICT Implementation.
(Answers, 2012) defines administrative support as a support that is given at the administrative part of an business. This includes such areas as accounting, office management, and data collection. Administrative support with regards to ICT identifies the occurrence of encouraging ICT-using role models, such as the principal, and the occurrence of incentives for teachers to work with technology (Priscilla, 2008). in this research, administrative support identifies the assistance and guidelines provided by administrators in companies of higher learning to assist in computer training and integration of ICT in to the curriculum. Matching to (A. S. Sife, 2007), administrative support is vital to the successful version of ICTs into teaching and learning techniques. It could be argued that administrators can offer the conditions that are needed, such as putting in place an ICT coverage, incentives and resources.
(A. S. Sife, 2007) acknowledged that for the implementation of ICTs to work and sustainable, administrators themselves must be proficient in the utilization of the technology, and they must have a wide knowledge of the complex, pedagogical, administrative, financial, and public dimensions of ICTs in education. For just about any institution to adjust to new innovations there has to be support from administrators (Mulira, September 2004). (Priscilla, 2008) explained that leadership from a mind of team is very significant in encouraging the introduction of electronic lessons materials to promote computer use for the precise subject matter in the teaching-learning environment. The study came out that the success of integrating ICT in to the teaching-learning communication among school teachers depends on the support provided by the main of the school. Several past studies acquired tried to connect administrative support and ICT implementation. Example, (Cameron Kim S. , 1986) in their review, came out that lacking administrative support is an obstacle to execution of advancement in education system in Nigeria. (A. S. Sife, 2007) in their studies explained that the issues preventing professors from using computer systems in coaching are brief of administrative, complex and financial support. (Hawkins, 2002) mentioned that university administrators offer very little structural support and incentives to educators to effectively use ICT in the classroom. Though lecturers devotedly take part in joint projects and constructivist pedagogy, administrative support given in mention of ICT is not ample.
Teachers use computers more frequently for his or her teaching-learning process if indeed they realized an adequate support from the school supervision (Kariuki, 2004). Instructors who receive satisfactory ICT support from the administrators will use ICTs in their coaching practice while those who do not acquire ICT support from the bigger authorities in university are less willing in using computer or do not integrate technology in any way. Administrators in university, such as the rectors and principals acts as a mediator to incorporate ICT into the educational system by participating in an integral role in stimulating, supporting, and aiding the teachers to make use of personal computers in their teaching-learning process. The support of the school principal or administrator can encourage and promote teacher's determination to utilize the computer as a medium to deliver instruction. Therefore, the task of the school administrator is vital in providing the drive, support and conditions to improve the use of computer in the teaching career. Although administrative support is optimistically an integral factor in influencing ICT integration, ICT implementation in polytechnics in northern Ghana was still minimal and thus, dependence on this study to research the effect of administrative support towards ICT implementation. Technology support has a good impact on teachers own uses of technology, and their integration of ICT in to the teaching-learning process. Technical support has been seen as one of the facilitating conditions that can effect computer usage. (Yang, 2008) explained that insufficient technical support as one of the major barriers that resulted in computers being underutilized in the classes. Educators do not use personal computers in teaching when they are not sure where you can turn for help in case something runs wrong. Also (Afshari, 2009) in their study reported that schools should work to encourage ICT personnel about how ICT integration in classrooms is vital. Ministry of Education and Sports activities should encourage Academic institutions to acquire highly reliable technologies; improve systems for looking at and keeping ICTs in the class room. This could be done by creating new solutions (including personnel training) to ensure that extremely swift responses are created to breakdowns. Within their statement of small firm computing, (Bottom, 1998) discovered that lack of technical support often discourages ICT progress. Tech support team may be given to teachers by giving them with specialized skills on how to handle computer hardware and software. (Afshari, 2009), reported that with support for information technology, teachers are able to access university network, internet and computer accessories (printing device, digital camera, data projector, large Tv set screen, scanning device and video camera). In addition they reported that as starters of computer use, teachers need technical and training support to help them in teaching-learning process when they face constraints while for competent teachers, they may be enthusiastic to share their knowledge and provide technology support to their colleagues. Therefore, lack of technical knowledge of maintaining the efficiency of computers baffled teachers to incorporate ICT in the class. Several problems related to ICT execution in classroom happen among the professors because of the lack of technological knowledge of keeping the functionality of the pcs.
Thus, insufficient technical support hampers the execution of the computer program. (Priscilla, 2008), in their research of the three-year computer effort, pointed out that educators were often mixed up by technicalities of using personal computers for the coaching and learning process.
The research showed that problems such as the breakdown of ICT devices rather than having enough speedy support led to inadequate school time. Professors, who don't have fast support or absence technical knowledge, run into problems and frustrations regarding the specialized management of ICT tools. So that it was hypothesized that ICT support has great effect on teacher's use of technology as it could aid boost the use of computers among teachers in organizations of higher learning and so in turn can raise the probability of ICT integration in the teaching and learning communication. Professors often require tech support team as well as pedagogical support such as guidance on choosing relevant software and integrating it into a lesson plan. Professors also need suggestions for ways how ICT may be used to meet educational goals, along with ideas how to arrange a classroom to adopt full good thing about only a few computers. This may be because of the difficulty and incompatibility of the creativity and thus, adversely affecting ICT implementation in polytechnics in north Ghana.
An important obstacle towards execution of personal computers in classrooms is because of insufficient training support by administrators. (Krysa, 1998) reported that successful implementation of computers can only take place if administrators provide educators support and command. In addition to administrators expanding an frame of mind to escort the implementation of computer technology, they can support the technical professional development of teachers by:
establishing versatile schedules so that instructors can practice what they have learned (or to continue their learning);
promoting and facilitating team teaching and peer coaching allowing teachers to visit each other's classrooms to study computer technology integration and
scheduling regular meetings among educators using technology to plan and evaluate instruction.
(Hsin-Kai, 2007) in their study, teacher's values about using educational technology in the science class room in Taiwan found that although many professors share beliefs that educational technology could promote learning and that the use of technology is suitable, they can be unwilling to utilize personal computers (ICT) because of insufficient support and resources provided by schools.
(Yang, 2008), in a case study at Curtin College or university of technology reported that school instructors who received support from administrators acquired a high dedication to the adoption of ICT for coaching and learning. In the study data suggested that the execution of ICT in teaching and learning would be promoted by higher support of the change at the management degree of the University. A crucial factor adding to the advertising of the advancement is the option of infrastructure resources: hardware, in conditions of the amount of computers in the school available for students and teachers for educational purposes, and the quality and working of equipment (quickness of processors, peripherals and usage of the internet) as well as available software.
Furthermore, option of ICT alone is inadequate and must be associated with complex as well as pedagogical support (Nachmis, 2004). Also (Aryatuha, 2007), known that the option of computers and software should be supported with training of the users and regular technical support. Without this, even though high quality hardware and software can be found, they could be wasted or continue to be underutilized by the users. This may support the hypothesis that minimal ICT execution in polytechnics in northern Ghana and thus, the need for this study to research the amount to which administrative support affected ICT implementation in polytechnics in north Ghana.
(Mbulankende, 2007) in his research, examination of teacher training in ICT in specific colleges in Uganda, reported that ICT like the majority of innovations won't work without administrative support. In the research it was suggested that continuous training should supply the support from which teachers can continue to keep and revise with ICT and its own application to subject matter pedagogy, to be able to improve their teaching skills. In every faculties, lecturers should be presented and trained how to work with various ICT tools common in the school room such as projectors, personal computers, electronic white boards, digital camera models and trouble shoot modest problems common with these facilities.
Ministry of Education and Sports should set up appropriate ways of ensure that integration of ICTs in teaching and learning process goes alongside the recruitment, training and retention of personnel.
(Peansupap, 2005) suggested that the inability of ICT change derives from the original beliefs of professionals and ICT experts that technology is a magic bullet and so neglect role of men and women in any change management activity. However, solving complex issues can lessen user's amount of resistance to technological innovation and therefore, ICT execution success is often understood by professionals who understand the management of scientific change. Thus, if teachers understand ICT as a beneficial tool, appropriate for their current activities, simple to use and have observable benefits, they could show good attitude towards ICT. This may positively effect ICT Implementation in establishments of higher learning. (Munyantware, 2006) in his analysis, problems affecting teacher's adoption of technology in classrooms among science and mathematics educators in Kisoro District, reported that in addition to interpersonal support from acquaintances, identified support from the school influences teachers adoption decision. The study suggested that ongoing support to teachers gives them assurance in using personal computers in teaching their relevant training in institutions of higher learning in Kabale Area. (Akankwasa, 2006) discovered that although some teachers share beliefs that educational technology could promote learning which the utilization of ICT is desired, they are hesitant to make use of educational ICT because of inadequate support and resources. Much as all these studies were on the framework of problems that influence ICT implementation, none of the issues studied were consistent with cost of ICT training materials and administrative support the distance this study intended to close. The sole factor that was similar was skills development in ICT. Furthermore, such studies didn't even investigate problems influencing ICT implementation in polytechnic in north Ghana, the gap this study designed to close.
Much as almost all of these studies showed a positive relationship between administrative support and ICT execution, nothing was on the framework of polytechnics in northern Ghana. Hence the necessity for this review to investigate the extent to which administrative support inspired ICT execution in polytechnics in northern Ghana
